Personal travel is becoming increasingly “passengerized,” with new travel products and services being enabled by the same technology that is expanding the ways in which travel time can be used. This paper explores the implications of these changes from the traveler’s perspective. A typology of possible changes in travel time is presented, followed by an extended discussion of reasons why, and mechanisms by which, travel time could, in particular, increase. Some key research needs are suggested and concluding reflections offered.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
LeclercF.SchmittB. H.DubeL.Waiting Time and Decision Making: Is Time Like Money?The Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1995, pp. 110–119.
2.
CouclelisH.From Sustainable Transportation to Sustainable Accessibility: Can We Avoid A New “Tragedy Of the Commons”? In Information, Place, and Cyberspace: Issues In Accessibility (JanelleD. G.HodgeD. C., eds.), Springer, Berlin, 2000, pp. 342–356.
3.
CircellaG.MokhtarianP. L.PoffL. K.A Conceptual Typology of Multitasking Behavior and Polychronicity Preferences. electronic International Journal of Time Use Research (eIJTUR), Vol. 9, No.1, 2012, pp. 59–107.
4.
KenyonS.What Do We Mean By Multitasking? Exploring the Need for Methodological Clarification in Time Use Research. electronic International Journal of Time Use Research (eIJTUR), Vol. 7, No. 1, 2010, pp. 42–60.
5.
MokhtarianP. L.SalomonI.How Derived is the Demand for Travel? Some Conceptual and Measurement Considerations. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Vol. 35, No. 8, 2001, pp. 695–719.
6.
MokhtarianP. L.SalomonI.SingerM. E.What Moves Us? An Interdisciplinary Exploration of Reasons for Traveling. Transport Reviews, Vol. 35, No. 3, 2015, pp. 250–274.
7.
SingletonP.MokhtarianP. L.Is There a Positive Utility of Travel?A Review of Concepts, Measures, and Evidence. 2018 (in progress).
8.
ReineckeL.AufenangerS.BeutelM. E.DreierM.QuiringO.StarkB.WölflingK.MüllerK. W.Digital Stress Over the Life Span: The Effects of Communication Load and Internet Multitasking on Perceived Stress and Psychological Health Impairments in a German Probability Sample. Media Psychology, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2017, pp. 90–115.
9.
FagnantD. J.KockelmanK. M.Dynamic Ridesharing and Fleet Sizing for a System of Shared Autonomous Vehicles in Austin, Texas. Transportation, Vol. 45, No. 1, 2018, pp. 143158.
10.
PudaneB.MolinE. J. E.ArentzeT. A.MaknoonY.ChorusC. G.A Time-Use Model for the Automated Vehicle Era. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, Vol. 93, 2018, pp. 102–114.
11.
ChildressS.NicholsB.CharltonB.CoeS.Using An Activity Based Model to Explore Possible Impacts of Automated Vehicles. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2015. 2493: 99–106.
12.
MokhtarianP. L.SalomonI.Modeling the Choice of Telecommuting: Setting the Context. Environment and Planning A, Vol. 26, 1994, pp. 749–766.
13.
FoggB. J.A Behavior Model for Persuasive Design. Proc., 4th International Conference on Persuasive Technology, Claremont, California, USA, April 26 – 29, 2009. https://Dl.Acm.Org/Citation.Cfm?Id=1541999. Accessed March 6, 2018. 10.1145/1541948.1541999.
14.
NordhoffS.AremB. vanHappeeR.Conceptual Model to Explain, Predict, and Improve User Acceptance of Driverless Podlike Vehicles. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2016. 2602: 60–67.
15.
GruelW.StanfordJ. M.System Effects of Widespread Use of Fully Automated Vehicles – Three Scenarios. In Disrupting Mobility: Impacts of Sharing Economy and Innovative Transportation On Cities (MeyerG.ShaheenS., eds.), Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 2017, ch. 9.
16.
MilakisD.van AremB.van WeeB.Policy and Society Related Implications of Automated Driving: A Review of Literature and Directions for Future Research. Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems, Vol. 21, No. 4, 2017, pp. 324–348.
17.
LaMondiaJ.FagnantD. J.QuH.BarrettJ.KockelmanK.Shifts in Long-Distance Travel Mode Due to Automated Vehicles: Statewide Mode-Shift Simulation Experiment and Travel Survey Analysis. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2016. 2566: 1–10.
18.
HarperC. D.HendricksonC. T.MangonesS.SamarasC.Estimating Potential Increases in Travel with Autonomous Vehicles for the Non-Driving, Elderly and People with Travel-Restrictive Medical Conditions. Transportation Research C, Vol. 72, 2016, pp. 1–9.
19.
TruongL. T.De GruyterC.CurrieG.DelboscA. (2017) Estimating the Trip Generation Impacts of Autonomous Vehicles On Car Travel In Victoria, Australia. Transportation, Vol. 44, No. 6, 2017, pp. 1279–1292.
20.
GuoZ.WilsonN. H. M.Assessment of the Transfer Penalty For Transit Trips: Geographic Information System-Based Disaggregate Modeling Approach. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2004. 1872: 10–18.
21.
TofflerA.The Third Wave. Bantam Books, New York, 1980.
22.
CairncrossF.The Death of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Harvard Business School Press, 1997.
23.
AuldJ., V. SokolovStephensT. S.Analysis of the Effects of Connected-Automated Vehicle Technologies on Travel Demand. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2017. 2625: 1–8.
24.
HessS.BierlaireM.PolakJ. W.Estimation of Value of Travel-Time Savings Using Mixed Logit Models. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Vol. 39, No. 1/2, 2005, pp. 221–236.
25.
OrtuzarJ. de D.WillumsenL. G.Modelling Transport, 4th ed.John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 2011.
26.
MokhtarianP. L.SalomonI.Modeling the Desire to Telecommute: The Importance of Attitudinal Factors In Behavioral Models. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1997, pp. 35–50.
27.
BhatC.GovindarajanA.PulugurtaV.Disaggregate Attraction-End Choice Modeling: Formulation and Empirical Analysis. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1998. 1645: 60–68.
28.
BernardinV.JrKoppelmanF.BoyceD.Enhanced Destination Choice Models Incorporating Agglomeration Related to Trip Chaining While Controlling For Spatial Competition. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2009. 2132: 143–151.
29.
Ben-AkivaM.LermanS. R.Discrete Choice Analysis: Theory and Application to Travel Demand. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1985.
30.
XuH.YangH.ZhouJ.YinY.A Route Choice Model with Context-Dependent Value of Time. Transportation Science, Vol. 51, No. 2, 2017, pp. 536–548.
31.
AhlfeldtG.If Alonso Was Right: Modeling Accessibility and Explaining the Residential Land Gradient. Journal of Regional Science, Vol. 51, No. 2, 2011, pp. 318–338.
32.
GuoJ. Y.BhatC. R.Operationalizing the Concept of Neighborhood: Application to Residential Location Choice Analysis. Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007, pp. 31–45.
33.
MalokinA.CircellaG.MokhtarianP. L.How Do Activities Conducted While Commuting Influence Mode Choice? Testing Public Transportation Advantage and Autonomous Vehicle Scenarios. Revision Under Peer Review, 2018.
34.
MalokinA.CircellaG.MokhtarianP. L.Do Multitasking Millennials Value Travel Time Differently? A Revealed Preference Study of Northern California Commuters. Paper #17-00891. Presented at the 96th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., January 2017.
35.
EtezadyA.MalokinA.MokhtarianP. L.CircellaG.Not All Minutes are Created Equal: How Does the Impact of Travel Time on Mode Choice Differ by Demographics and Propensity to Multitask?2018 (in progress).
36.
MalokinA.MokhtarianP. L.CircellaG.An Investigation of Methods to Enrich National Household Travel Survey Data with Attitudinal Variables. 2018 (in progress).
37.
PawlakJ.PolakJ. W.SivakumarA.Towards a Microeconomic Framework for Modelling the Joint Choice of Activity – Travel Behaviour and ICT Use. Transportation Research A, Vol. 76, 2015, pp. 92–112.
38.
PawlakJ.PolakJ. W.SivakumarA.A Framework for Joint Modelling of Activity Choice, Duration, and Productivity while Traveling. Transportation Research B, Vol. 106, 2017, pp. 153–172.
39.
MackieP. J.Jara-DíazS.FowkesA. S.The Value of Travel Time Savings in Evaluation. Transportation Research E, Vol. 37, 2001, pp. 91–106.
40.
DalyA.TsangF.RohrC.The Value of Small Time Savings for Non-Business Travel. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, Vol. 48, No. 2, 2014, pp. 205–218.
41.
NæssP.Inaccurate and Biased: Cost-Benefit Analyses of Transport Infrastructure Projects. In Crisis System: A Critical Realist and Environmental Critique of Economics and the Economy (NaessP.PriceL., eds.), Routledge, New York, 2016.
42.
GripsrudM.HjortholR.Working on the Train: From ‘Dead Time’ to Productive and Vital Time. Transportation, Vol. 39, 2012, pp. 941–956.
43.
LyonsG.UrryJ.Travel Time Use in the Information Age. Transportation Research A, Vol. 39, No. 1/2, 2005, pp. 257–276.
44.
Ben-EliaE.Lyons.G.MokhtarianP. L.Epilogue: The New Frontiers of Behavioural Research on the Interrelationships between ICT, Activities, Time Use and Mobility. Transportation, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2018, pp. 479–497.
45.
CyganskiR.FraedrichE.LenzB.Travel Time Valuation for Automated Driving: A Use-Case-Driven Study. Paper #15-4259. Presented at the 94th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board. Washington, D.C., January 2015.
46.
ShawF. A.MalokinA.MokhtarianP. L.CircellaG.It’s Not All Fun and Games: Modeling the Reported Benefits and Disadvantages of Conducting Activities While Commuting. 2018 (in progress).
47.
WilhoitE. D.‘My Drive Is My Sacred Time’: Commuting As Routine Liminality. Culture and Organization, Vol. 23, No. 4, 2017, pp. 263–276.
48.
BairdB.SmallwoodJ.MrazekM. D.KamJ. W. Y.FranklinM. S.SchoolerJ. W.. Inspired by Distraction: Mind Wandering Facilitates Creative Incubation. Psychological Science, Vol. 23, No. 10, 2012, pp. 1117–1122.
49.
BenchS. W.LenchH. C.On the Function of Boredom. Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 3, 2013, pp. 459–472.
50.
MannS.CadmanR.Does Being Bored Make Us More Creative?Creativity Research Journal, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2014, pp. 165–173.
51.
HolleyD.JainJ.LyonsG.Understanding Business Travel Time and Its Place in the Working Day. Time and Society, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2008, pp. 27–46.
52.
LarsenJ.Tourism Mobilities and the Travel Glance: Experiences of Being on the Move. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2001, pp. 80–98.
53.
JainJ.LyonsG.The Gift of Travel Time. Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 16, 2008, pp. 81–89.
54.
RussellM.MokhtarianP. L.How Real is a Reported Desire to Travel for Its Own Sake? Exploring the ‘Teleportation’ Concept in Travel Behaviour Research. Transportation, Vol. 42, 2015, pp. 333–345.
55.
HarbM.XiaoY.CircellaG.MokhtarianP. L.WalkerJ.Projecting Travelers into a World of Self-driving Vehicles: Estimating Travel Behavior Implications via a Naturalistic Experiment. Transportation, in press. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-018-9937-9
56.
FrimanM.GärlingT.EttemaD.OlssonL. E.How Does Travel Affect Emotional Well-Being and Life Satisfaction?Transportation Research A, Vol. 106, 2017, pp. 170–180.
57.
AlonsoW.Predicting Best with Imperfect Data. Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. 34, 1968, pp. 248–255.