Model minority under Bamboo Ceiling: On the association between leadership development opportunities and task performance and helping behavior of Asian employees

Abstract

Drawing from the self-affirmation theory, this research delves into the dynamics of why and how leadership development opportunity can boost Asian employees’ job performance in Western contexts. Specifically, we hypothesize that leadership development opportunity is positively related to Asian employees’ self-affirmation of core values, which further predicts higher task performance and the workplace helping behavior of these employees. Meanwhile, we propose that ethical identification strengthens the positive relationship between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values. A pilot study (N = 101) is conducted in Australia to uncover the positive association between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values among Asian employees. In our main study, using multi-wave (i.e. three time points) data focusing on full-time Asian–Australian employees (N = 436), we replicate the findings of the pilot study and find support for the full model. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

JEL Code: M12

Keywords

Ethnic identification helping behavior leadership development opportunity self-affirmation of core values task performance

1. Introduction

The term “Bamboo Ceiling” is commonly used in organizational management literature to describe the subtle barriers that limit Asian employees’ career advancement in Western countries (Lu, 2022). Despite being perceived as the “model minority” (Yip et al., 2021), Asian employees often face challenges in attaining leadership roles. This raises important questions about diversity, inclusion, and cultural representation in the workplace (Harris and Ogbonna, 2023; Loon, 2022; Lu, 2024). In this sense, scholars have emphasized the need to challenge stereotypes by implementing diversity practices that go beyond representation (e.g. Yu, 2020), including leadership development opportunities specifically for Asian employees (Lu, 2022).

In particular, we argue that it is essential to address the nuanced challenges faced by Asian employees beyond the existing literature for two main reasons. First, prior research has focused on Asian employees from a macro perspective, overlooking individual differences. For instance, studies have examined their economic prosperity through factors like bargaining power and salary gaps (Lu, 2023). While these are important, it is crucial to understand Asian employees’ personal experiences at an individual level, as this deeper insight can benefit both the employees and their organizations by fostering higher performance (Shen et al., 2024). Second, while numerous social and cultural factors, such as systemic barriers and racial stereotypes, have been explored to explain the challenges Asian employees face (Jun et al., 2023), research from an organizational management perspective remains limited. This gap is surprising, given the growing presence of Asian employees in Western organizations (Cheng and Bonacich, 2021). Thus, understanding how Asian employees’ leadership representation affects their psychological and behavioral responses is key to developing human resource practices, talent management, and managerial strategies that align with their values (Loon, 2022; Lu, 2022). These insights are vital for creating inclusive workplaces that support the success and well-being of Asian employees.

Therefore, in the present research, we draw from the self-affirmation theory (Aronson et al., 1999; Sherman and Cohen, 2002; Steele, 1988) to investigate how and why leadership development opportunity may influence the mindset and behaviors of Asian employees in the workplace. To be specific, the self-affirmation theory posits that individuals tend to seek information such as value and meaningfulness in the environment in order to demonstrate their adequacy (Cohen and Sherman, 2014; Sherman and Cohen, 2002; Steele, 1988). Following this notion, we predict that, by receiving leadership development opportunity, Asian employees experience a social value gaining process (Lee Cunningham et al., 2021) that can motivate the enhancement of self-worth (i.e. self-affirmation of core values, Harris et al., 2019). Considering that being socially valued allows these employees to “feel needed, cared about, and valued by others” (Lee Cunningham et al., 2021: 1818), we reasonably expect that Asian employees with enhanced self-affirmation of core values will be more likely to have better task performance and engage in more helping behaviors (i.e. a type of extra-role and pro-social behavior that helps peers to solve or avoid work-related problems, Choi, 2006) at work.

In addition, the self-affirmation theory also suggests that one’s self-affirmation is contingent upon the identification of individual affirmed character that is important to him or herself (Ott and Moyer-Gusé, 2022; Sherman, 2013). In line with this proposition, our present research examines ethnic identification, meaning the extent to which an employee from a certain ethnic background experiences a sense of oneness with his or her ethnicity, as a potential moderator. We focus on ethnic identification as a potential boundary condition first because it is a theory-based construct consistent with the notion of the self- affirmation theory (Cohen and Garcia, 2008). More importantly, it has been suggested that one’s identification “increases the person’s receptivity to social influence from other group members and decreases the person’s receptivity to social influence from non-group members” (Hekman et al., 2009: 1325). That said, in the case of our research, Asian employees tend to have dual social identities—one related to organization and another related to their ethnicity. Thus, Asian employees tend to view the manager or the supervisor as a group member but not necessarily a member of their ethnic group. To this end, we expect to investigate how Asian employees holding a strong ethnic identification would influence their response to managerial initiatives such as leadership development opportunity provided by the manager or the supervisor. We depict our conceptual model in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Conceptual model.

Our research makes several key contributions. First, by considering leadership representation of Asian employees, our research provides further understanding to the dynamic role that ethnic minority plays within Western work environments (Jun et al., 2023). Diverging from the conventional emphasis on ethnic groups such as Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics (Abascal, 2015), our focus shifts toward understanding the nuanced challenges of leadership underrepresentation faced by Asian employees. This lens allows us to highlight how access to leadership development opportunities can serve as a catalyst for fostering positive psychology and work behaviors among Asian employees. By doing so, we not only acknowledge the potential contributions Asians can bring to organizational success but also emphasize the importance of mitigating racial inequities within the workplace (Harris and Ogbonna, 2023; Ma and Lo, 2024).

Second, by extending the self-affirmation theory to cultural and ethnic research, our current research provides valuable insights into potential antecedents and mechanisms that can address the Bamboo Ceiling phenomenon. Previous research has frequently adopted perspectives such as social identity theory and cultural psychology frameworks to explicate the leadership representation and employee outcomes at work. For example, in their research, Carroll and Levy (2010) emphasized that leadership development can be a process of identity construction. Arun and Kahraman Gedik (2022) revealed that cultural value and leadership role expectations are intertwined. While recognizing the contributions of these theories, our current research focuses on the self-affirmation theory and proposes the theory-based mechanism of self-affirmation of core values through which leadership development opportunity results in two forms of specific job performance (i.e. higher levels of performance and increased helping behaviors) of Asian employees. In doing so, we contribute to the cultural psychology and Bamboo Ceiling relevant literature by highlighting the self-affirmation process as a valued contributor.

Third, our contribution extends to the exploration of ethnic identification within the context of the Bamboo Ceiling, bridging a gap in existing research. While prior studies have predominantly focused on organizational or professional identities which may influence how employees react in the workplace (e.g. Hekman et al., 2009; Zhao et al., 2019), our work offers a more nuanced perspective by examining the role of Asian employees’ ethnic identification. In particular, by incorporating the concept of self-affirmation, we argue that Asian employees with a strong ethnic identification are more likely to experience positive core value self-affirmation in response to leadership development opportunities. This assertion not only delineates a crucial boundary condition in the self-affirmation process for Asian employees but also underscores the significance of ethnic research within organizational contexts (Jun et al., 2023), particularly concerning understudied racial groups like Asians (Lu, 2022). In this sense, by illuminating the interplay between ethnic identification, self-affirmation, and career advancement, our study enriches our understanding of the complexities surrounding diversity and inclusion in the workplace, advocating for more comprehensive approaches to address barriers faced by ethnic minority groups in Western contexts.

2. Theory and hypotheses

2.1. Self-affirmation theory

The self-affirmation theory explores how individuals strive to maintain a positive self-concept when faced with information or experiences that threaten their sense of self (Cohen and Sherman, 2014; Sherman and Cohen, 2002; Steele, 1988). A central tenet of this theory suggests that, seeking information from the environment, individuals are motivated to meet their fundamental need by maintaining a positive self-image and integrity of the self (Cohen and Sherman, 2014; Sherman and Cohen, 2002).

This theory is particularly useful in guiding our conceptual model in this research. To be specific, we theorize that self-affirmation of core values—where individuals enhance their self-worth by affirming their intrinsic beliefs and principles within social contexts (Harris et al., 2019; Lee Cunningham et al., 2021)—serves as a significant factor in shaping employee psychology, particularly when they are offered leadership development opportunities. Drawing from the self-affirmation theory, we explain that engaging in activities aligned with core values likely reinforces an individual’s sense of worth and integrity, leading to increased self-esteem and motivation (Lee Cunningham et al., 2021). In light of this, and considering our focus on Asian employees, we suggest that leadership development opportunities provided by organizations serve as clear environmental cues that predict the self-affirmation of core values. As a result, by reminding oneself of important values, individuals are motivated to engage in self-affirmation acts (Cohen and Sherman, 2014; Sherman and Cohen, 2006). Given that self-affirmation theorists have highlighted this theory as a useful lens through which to understand improved performance of employees (Sherman, 2013), in the current research, we move a step forward to clarify the variance the self-affirmation can account for in predicting specific forms of employee performance (i.e. task performance and helping behavior, in our study).

2.2. Leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values

We draw from the self-affirmation theory to theorize that leadership development opportunity provided by the organization is positively related to self-affirmation of core values among Asian employees for the following reasons. First, leadership development opportunities representing an environmental cue signals that Asian employees are valued contributors. By offering leadership development opportunities to Asian employees, organizations and managers send a signal that they are committed to diversity, equity, and inclusion (Harris and Ogbonna, 2023), which increases the representation and recognition of Asian employees (Sy et al., 2017). When Asians see themselves or others like themselves being granted opportunities to succeed in leadership roles or be actively encouraged to develop leadership skills, it serves as a recognition of their capabilities and contributions. Such increased representation reaffirms Asian employees’ belief in the importance of their core values within the organizational framework, fostering a sense of self-affirmation. Indeed, in line with our view, previous research has indicated that social validation of employees’ strengths and positive contributions tends to significantly enhance their feelings of self-worth (Lee Cunningham et al., 2021). Along the same vein, in their research, Sy et al. (2017) have revealed that leadership advancement among Asian racial groups in the United States help better utilize knowledge, skills, and broader competencies of Asian–Americans. To this end, we suggest that providing leadership development opportunities allow Asian employees in Western contexts to shape a sense of social worth affirmation, which highlights and strengthens their core values as a meaningful contributor.

Second, in addition to reminding Asian employees of their self-wroth, leadership development opportunities diminish threat to self-concepts among Asians, which boosts their self-affirmation of core values. The self-affirmation theory contends that various social information and events pose a potential threat to individuals’ sense of personal worth and thus trigger their subsequently defensive responses (Sherman and Cohen, 2006). However, in our research, leadership development opportunities allow Asian employees to leverage their core values in leadership roles, which helps them to alleviate threat to their self-concepts. Indeed, there is ample evidence suggesting that social worth affirmation tends to broaden employees’ sense of self and such broader sense of self is inclined to help these employees to “move beyond a narrow focus on a particular threat to the self” (Lee Cunningham et al., 2021; 1820; Sherman and Hartson, 2011). As a result, we conclude that Asian employees who receive leadership development opportunities as an essential type of social worth affirmation are likely to have positive and enhanced self-affirmation of core values. Similarly, supporting our view, leadership research in relation to gender also demonstrates that developing female leaders tends to enhance focal females’ self-worth and self-efficacy (e.g. De Klerk and Verreynne, 2017).

Moreover, we also recognize the value of longitudinal dynamics when leadership development opportunities are granted to Asian employees. As abovementioned, Asian employees who engage with leadership development opportunities often experience enhanced self- and social worth. As Asian employees progress through leadership development initiatives, they are more likely to integrate these psychological gains into their self-concept (Avolio and Hannah, 2008). Such process of self-affirmation helps individuals to clarify their strengths and values, fostering a more resilient and adaptive mindset (Wang et al., 2022), which, as a result, allows them to be better equipped to navigate challenges, setbacks, and uncertainties in their professional roles. Consistent with this view, previous research also indicates that sustained engagement with leadership development opportunities tend to lead to transformative shifts in individuals’ self-perception and identity (e.g. Reams et al., 2020). Therefore, considering the above elaborations, we have the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: Leadership development opportunity is positively related to self-affirmation of core values of Asian employees.

2.3. Task performance and helping behaviors as outcomes

We next follow the self-affirmation theory to argue that, in the workplace, Asian employees’ self-affirmation of core values is more likely to be positively related to their task performance. In this research, focusing on task performance as a theory-based outcome stems from the notion that self-affirmation enables individuals to tackle challenges more effectively (Vohs et al., 2013). When individuals feel affirmed, they are likely to be better equipped to navigate obstacles with confidence and resilience (Howell, 2017). In the workplace context, task performance serves as a vital gauge of employee reactions following self-affirmation (Kim et al., 2022). In this sense, elevated task performance tends to denote that employees who are buoyed by self-affirmation, are primed to deliver their best work despite adversities. Thus, such examination is expected to be practically meaningful by highlighting the significance of fostering a self-affirming environment in workplaces.

To be specific, Asian employees’ self-affirmation of core values significantly influences their task performance by fostering a sense of purpose and alignment within their roles (Goyer et al., 2017). The sense of a deep connection to core values acts as a motivational driver guiding Asian employees’ actions in the workplace (Thorbjørnsen and Supphellen, 2011). In particular, such alignment often results in a higher level of dedication and commitment to tasks (Bahzar, 2019) as they perceive their work as a reflection of their values. Therefore, the intrinsic motivation stemming from self-affirmation (Schimel et al., 2004) is expected to propel Asian employees to strive for excellence and invest additional effort in their responsibilities, thereby positively impacting their task performance.

Furthermore, self-affirmation of core values contributes to a resilient mindset among employees (Wang et al., 2022), enabling them to navigate challenges more effectively. In our research, Asian employees with a positive self-affirmation of core values are likely to feel secure in their values, and thus exhibit greater adaptability and perseverance when faced with obstacles (Howell, 2017). Indeed, previous research has indicated that self-affirmed students tend to experience attenuated defensiveness and reduced physiological stress responses, leading to better academic performance (Sherman, 2013). Along the same vein, we reasonably expect that Asian employees with self-affirmation of core values should be more consistent and efficient in the execution of tasks, ultimately enhancing their overall task performance. Thus, we propose the following:

Hypothesis 2a: Self-affirmation of core values is positively related to task performance.

So far, we have argued that leadership development opportunity tends to allow Asian employees to build self-affirmation of core values (Hypothesis 1), and self-affirmation of core values is likely to predict increased task performance (Hypothesis 2a). Taken together, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2b: Self-affirmation of core values mediates the indirectly positive relationship between leadership development opportunity and task performance.

In addition, following the notion of the self-affirmation theory, we also argue that Asian employees’ self-affirmation of core values is positively related to their engagement in helping behaviors at work. We consider helping behavior rather than other extra-role behaviors as the outcome because of its intrinsic connection to communal values within Asian cultures (Ting and Hwang, 2009). Indeed, in many Asian cultures, there has been a deep-seated emphasis on values such as altruism, reciprocity, and collective benefits (Zuo et al., 2023); and due to this, we reasonably expect that those who reaffirm core values are likely to exhibit behaviors aligned with these cultural norms. In addition, by prioritizing helping behavior as the outcome variable, we shift attention from mere general extra-role performance to the more specific interpersonal dynamics crucial for organizational harmony and effectiveness (Wu et al., 2022), which tends to further harness the full potential of the Asian employees.

We explain that self-affirmation of core values tends to promote employees’ helping behavior at work mainly because the feel affirmed in core values allows focal employees to uncouple the self and threat (Sherman, 2013; Sherman and Hartson, 2011), which enable them to be distracted from the potential threat to self without focusing on ego protection (Sherman and Cohen, 2006). As a result, self-affirmation is likely to “create a sense of connection to something larger than one’s ego, enabling individuals to transcend their narrow self-interests and broaden their perspective beyond the immediate self” (Bolat, 2023: 872; Sherman, 2013). Consistent with these arguments, from a theoretical perspective of relational self, scholars also make a similar conclusion suggesting that social worth affirmation makes employees broaden their working definition of self, which allows them to include “making a positive contribution to others” as an essential part of self (Lee Cunningham et al., 2021: 1818). Due to the above reasons, we propose a positive relationship between self-affirmation of core values and Asian employees’ helping behavior at work. Supporting our posit, extant research has also provided evidence on the potential link between self-affirmation and various types of extra-role behavior such as helping behaviors in the workplace. For example, while a number of previous empirical studies reveal that self-affirmation tends to increase employees’ engagement in helping behaviors and pro-social behaviors at work (e.g. Schnall and Roper, 2012), in a more recent study, Schneider and Weber (2022) have reconfirmed the motivation of employees’ prosocial behaviors by leveraging their value affirmation. Therefore, we hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 3a: Self-affirmation of core values is positively related to Asian–Australian employee’s helping behavior.

As abovementioned, in combination of Hypothesis 1 (positive relationship between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values) and Hypothesis 3a (positive relationship between self-affirmation of core values and helping behavior), we propose the following indirect relationship between leadership development opportunity to Asian employees and their helping behavior through the mediating role of self-affirmation of core values:

Hypothesis 3b: Self-affirmation of core values mediates the indirectly positive relationship between leadership development opportunity and helping behavior.

2.4. The moderating role of ethnic identification

According to the self-affirmation theory, various forms of contextual factors can safeguard or threat the self-integrity that individuals are motivated to maintain; in particular, these factors tend to involve the extent to which one can meet culturally or socially significant standards (Easterbrook et al., 2021). Guiding by this notion, we posit that ethnic identification—the extent to which one identifies with and feel a desire to belong to a particular ethnic group (Phinney et al., 2001)—plays a pivotal role in shaping Asian employees’ self-affirmation of core values in response to leadership development opportunities. To explain, when employees strongly identify with their ethnic groups, they are more likely to perceive that they can leverage the leadership opportunities and experiences to better acknowledge and celebrate their ethnic and cultural values (Henze et al., 2002). This is because leadership development opportunities provided to Asian employees allow them to integrate their values authentically into their leadership style and practices (Kawahara et al., 2007). By doing so, Asian employees who are high on ethnic identification see such leadership development opportunities as a platform for not only their personal growth but also for reaffirming the significance of their cultural beliefs and traditions. In this sense, the alignment between leadership development and ethnic identification empowers them to embrace and confidently apply their core values within their leadership roles, thus amplifying their self-affirmation. Similarly, supporting our view, previous research has also provided ample evidence to demonstrate that ethnic identification can be effective in buffering ethnic-based societal devaluation and associated negative effects (e.g. Armenta et al., 2011; Tangirala and Ramanujam, 2008). Moreover, consistent with our arguments, scholars have also suggested that individuals’ identification with their ethnic group is likely to result in a “greater adherence to the values of the originating culture and as an additional source of self-esteem in opposition to the forces of acculturation” (Nagoshi et al., 2011: 523), reflecting that ethnic identification can be an effective boundary condition further explaining individuals’ boosted self-affirmation of core values. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis associated with the moderating role of ethnic identification in our study:

Hypothesis 4: Ethnic identification moderates the positive relationship between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values such that this relationship is strengthened when ethnic identification is high.

2.5. Integrated model

We have thus far discussed the indirect effect of leadership development opportunity on task performance and helping behavior through self-affirmation of core values (i.e. Hypotheses 1–3) and the moderating role of ethnic identification in strengthening the positive relationship between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values (Hypothesis 4). Moving a step forward, given the pivotal role of ethnic identification in shaping an individual’s self-conception within their ethnic community (Phinney et al., 2001), we anticipate that within our research framework, Asian employees with a strong ethnic identification will find participation in leadership development programs particularly empowering. Such involvement is likely to bolster their self-esteem and validate their distinctive perspectives and experiences related to their ethnicity (Nagoshi et al., 2011). This heightened ethnic pride among those with strong ethnic identification further reinforces the affirmation of core values among Asian employees and encourages behaviors that reflect their ethnic identity (Ramasubramanian et al., 2017). Considering the cultural emphasis on diligence and communal benefits within Asian societies (e.g. Yip et al., 2021; Zuo et al., 2023), we expect that these individuals will demonstrate elevated task performance and engage more readily in helping behaviors within the workplace. Expanding on these insights and drawing from the methodology advocated by Hayes (2017), we put forth the notion of conditional indirect effects to illuminate the interplay of these constructs. Consequently, we advance the following hypotheses to encapsulate our theoretical propositions:

Hypothesis 5a: The indirect effect of leadership development opportunity on task performance via self-affirmation of core values is moderated by ethnic identification, such that the effect is stronger when ethnic identification is high.

Hypothesis 5b: The indirect effect of leadership development opportunity on helping behavior via self-affirmation of core values is moderated by ethnic identification, such that the effect is stronger when ethnic identification is high.

3. Research overview

We conducted two empirical studies in Australia (i.e. Asian–Australian employees) to test our model. Data for this research were acquired from September 2023 to early 2024 and only used in this research and not anywhere else. The data that support the findings of this research are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Specifically, we first conducted a pilot study to verify the potential association between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values among Asian employees (Hypothesis 1). To examine the full model, we conducted a second study (i.e. Main Study) to replicate the findings of pilot study and tested the full moderated mediation model (i.e. Hypotheses 1–5).

4. Pilot study

4.1. Sample and procedures

Employing a time-lagged survey design methodology to mitigate common method bias as suggested by Podsakoff et al. (2003), we undertook a pilot study in Australia with the objective of examining the potential correlation between leadership development opportunities and employees’ self-affirmation of core values. Collaborating with a renowned public survey distributor in Australia, we gathered data from a diverse and nationally representative sample. At Time 1, we administered the initial survey to measure participants’ exposure to leadership development opportunities and collect demographic information. Subsequently, 2 weeks later, the same participants were invited to complete a follow-up survey at Time 2, wherein the assessment of self-affirmation of core values was included. Initially, we reached out to 209 full-time employees across various regions of Australia, ultimately securing participation from 101 individuals, yielding a response rate of 48%. Despite this, the sample exhibited considerable diversity in age groups, spanning from under 21 to over 50 years, and showcased a relatively balanced gender distribution, comprising 61 males and 40 females. Moreover, the sample boasted a broad spectrum of educational backgrounds, ranging from high-school qualifications to doctoral degrees. Notably, our sample captured a rich representation of Asian backgrounds, with Southeast Asians (N = 41) and Chinese Asians (N = 38) being the most prevalent. In addition, the sample encompassed other ethnic groups, including Central Asians (N = 4), other Northeast Asians (N = 6), and Southern Asians (N = 12).

4.2. Measure

Unless otherwise specified, all items were measured on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree).

4.2.1. Leadership development opportunity

We measured leadership development opportunity by adapting three items from Kraimer et al. (2011). The three items were “My organization has programs and policies that help Asian employees to reach higher leadership levels,” “My organization provides opportunities for Asian employees to develop their leadership skills,” and “My organization has career development programs that help Asian employees develop their leadership skills” (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.96).

4.2.2. Self-affirmation of core values

We measured self-affirmation of core values using a four-item scale that focuses on self-affirmation of core values/principles (Harris et al., 2019). A sample item is “I think about the things I believe in” (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.91).

4.2.3. Control variables

We controlled for respondents’ demographic information, including their age (1 = less than 21; 2 = 22–30; 3 = 31–40; 4 = 41–50; 5 = more than 50); gender (0 = female; 1 = male); education (0 = high school and lower; 1 = Diploma; 2 = Bachelor’s Degree; 3 = Master’s Degree; 4 = Doctoral Degree); job tenure (in months); and ethnic groups (1 = Central Asian, 2 = Chinese Asian, 3 = other Northeast Asian, 4 = Southeast Asian, 5 = Southern Asian).

4.3. Results

We conducted confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) using Mplus Version 8 (Muthén and Muthén, 2017) to specify the discriminant validity among studied variables. The hypothesized two-factor model displayed an acceptable fit: χ² = 36.355, p < 0.001; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.091, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.963, and Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI) = 0.940. The means, standard deviations, and correlations for the focal variables are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Means, standard deviations, and correlations for variables in pilot study.

Variable	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	5	7	8
1. Age	2.53	1.10	–
2. Gender	0.60	0.24	0.10	–
3. Education	2.00	0.93	0.09	0.00	–
4. Ethnics	3.19	1.38	−0.33	−0.15	−0.18	–
5. Tenure	31.37	1914.74	0.32**	0.06	−0.16	−0.19	–
6. Leadership development opportunity	4.34	1.65	−0.07	0.05	0.01	0.07	−0.14	(0.96)
7. Self-affirmation of core values	5.55	1.16	0.04	−0.10	0.15	0.05	−0.20	0.24*	(0.91)

N = 101; Values of Cronbach’s α are presented on the diagonal of the correlation matrix. 0 = female; 1 = male; 1 = less than 21; 2 = 22–30; 3 = 31–40; 4 = 41–50; 5 = more than 50; 0 = high school and lower; 1 = diploma; 2 = bachelor’s degree; 3 = master’s degree; 4 = doctoral degree.

p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; two-tailed.

Given that all measures were self-reported, we conducted Harman’s single-factor test to scrutinize the potential common method bias. The results of Harman’s single-factor test, encompassing all primary variables, revealed that the single unrotated factor explained 44.62% of the total variance, falling below the conventional threshold of 50% (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Hence, common method bias does not pose a significant concern. Subsequently, we employed path analyses utilizing Mplus to assess our hypotheses. Hypothesis 1 proposes that leadership development opportunity is positively related to self-affirmation of core values. Supporting this hypothesis, we observed a positive and significant relationship between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values (B = 0.20, SE = 0.10, p < 0.05).

4.4. Pilot study: discussion

In our time-lagged survey involving Asian employees in Australia in the Pilot Study, we obtained preliminary support for Hypothesis 1. Notably, Asian employees demonstrated heightened self-affirmation of core values when presented with increased leadership development opportunities in their workplaces. However, we suggest that the sample size of our Pilot Study was relatively small and most of the participants were identified as Southeast Asians or Chinese Asians. To deepen our comprehension of Asian employees’ workplace behaviors stemming from augmented self-affirmation of core values, and to explore the potential boundary conditions affecting their psychological and behavioral responses, we subsequently conducted a Main Study using a different sample to test our proposed full moderated mediation model. This study not only aimed to replicate the findings of the Pilot Study, but also to provide the generalizability of our results.

5. Main study

5.1. Sample and procedures

In our Main Study, we focused on the identical population—Asian employees in Australia—and conducted a multi-wave field study. Initially, we enlisted 600 participants who identified as full-time Asian employees. These individuals were tasked with completing a Time 1 survey comprising assessments of leadership development opportunities, ethnic identification, and demographic variables. Subsequently, 2 weeks later, participants were prompted to complete a Time 2 survey, which incorporated measures evaluating self-affirmation of core values. Following another 2-week interval after the Time 2 survey (Time 3), employees were requested to rate their own task performance and workplace helping behavior. Our choice of a 2-week time lag aligns with established practices in prior research examining variables such as self-efficacy, social support, and job performance (e.g. Luksyte and Carpini, 2024). This duration strikes a delicate balance, being sufficiently distant to mitigate common method bias yet proximate enough to optimize participant retention (Ma et al., 2020). This decision holds particular significance, as extending the interval could heighten dropout rates and introduce recall biases, while shorter intervals might inadequately capture the nuanced evolution of perceptions and behaviors central to our investigation. By employing this timeframe, we aim to ensure robust data collection while minimizing potential distortions, thereby enhancing the reliability and validity of our findings.

Out of the 600 employees we initially approached, we received 436 completed questionnaires, resulting in a final response rate of 73%. Within our current sample, gender distribution was as follows: 161 males, 266 females, and 10 individuals who either identified as other or preferred not to disclose their gender. The participating Asian employees exhibited a diverse range of educational backgrounds, with the majority (83%) holding a bachelor’s degree or higher. Specifically, 21 participants had a high-school diploma or a lower degree, 50 held a diploma, 243 possessed a bachelor’s degree, 111 had attained a master’s degree, and 9 held a doctoral degree or equivalent. Regarding ethnicity, 12 respondents identified as Southeast Asian, 115 as Chinese Asian, 234 as Southern Asian, 44 as Central Asian, and 32 as Northeast Asian. On average, participants reported a tenure of 32 months, with a median tenure of 18 months. Notably, the most frequently reported tenure durations were 12 months (7.6%) and 24 months (7.8%), indicating that a significant portion of participants had been in their current positions or roles for 1–2 years.

5.2. Measure

As in the Pilot Study, unless otherwise specified, all items were measured on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). We used the same scales from the Pilot Study to measure leadership development opportunity (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.91), self-affirmation of core values (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.91), and control variables. The Cronbach’s alphas were 0.91, and 0.91, respectively.

5.2.1. Task performance

Task performance was measured using the 5-item scale developed by Methot et al. (2016). A sample item was “I can adequately complete assigned duties” (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.91).

5.2.2. Helping behavior

Helping behavior was measure by the 4-item scale from Choi (2006). A sample item was “I go out of my way to help coworkers with work-related problems” (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84).

5.2.3. Ethnic identification

We measured ethnic identification using a 5-item scale adapted from the identification measure developed by Hekman et al. (2009). A sample item was “When I talk about Asians, I usually say ‘we’ rather than ‘they’” (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.75).

5.3. Discriminant validity

We conducted a series of Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to assess the discriminant validity of our variables. The proposed model comprised latent factors representing leadership development opportunity, self-affirmation of core values, ethnic identification, task performance, and helping behavior. Our focus in these analyses was solely on these five key variables, with control variables omitted, as per the approach suggested by Zhao and Ma (2023). This strategy allowed us to rigorously establish the discriminant validity of our measurement model. The five-factor model demonstrated a good fit to the data (χ² = 409.517 [df = 179], p < 0.001, CFI = 0.964, RMSEA = 0.049, SRMR = 0.048). Comparisons for alternative models are presented in Table 2. The results suggested that our hypothesized five-factor model was significantly better than alternate models because the measurement scales were each measuring different constructs.

Table 2.

Model comparisons for main study.

Models	RMSEA	CFI	SRMR	χ² (df)
Model 0: Hypothesized five-factor model	0.049	0.964	0.048	409.517*** (179)
Model 1: Four-factor model (Combined LDO and HB)	0.110	0.815	0.144	1382.444*** (183)
Model 2: Four-factor model (combined LDO and TA)	0.150	0.658	0.184	2403.250*** (183)
Model 3: Three-factor model (combined PDO and EI; Combined TA and HB)	0.112	0.807	0.106	1437.87*** (186)
Model 4: Two-factor model (combined LDO and EI; combined SACV, TA, HB)	0.162	0.593	0.146	2828.014*** (188)
Model 5: Two-factor model (combined LDO, SACV and EI; combined TA, HB)	0.164	0.579	0.165	2918.256*** (188)
Model 6: Single-factor model (combined LDA and SACV)	0.198	0.384	0.179	4184.647*** (189)

N = 436; LDO = leadership development opportunity, SACV = self-affirmation of core values, EI = ethnic identification, TP = task performance, HB = helping behavior, RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation, SRMR = standardized root mean square residual.

***p < 0.001.

5.4. Results

The descriptive statistics and correlations among the variables for the Main Study are presented in Table 3.

Table 3.

Means, standard deviations, and correlations for variables in main study.

Variable	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
1. Age	2.47	0.99	–
2. Gender	0.39	0.53	0.00	–
3. Education	2.10	0.80	0.01	−0.07	–
4. Ethnics	3.40	1.07	−0.08	−0.12*	−0.09	–
5. Tenure	32.00	39.40	0.28***	−0.06	−0.06	−0.07	–
6. Leadership development opportunity	4.39	1.45	−0.06	0.02	0.01	0.07	−0.05	(0.91)
7. Ethnic identification	4.66	1.00	0.04	−0.01	−0.04	0.07	−0.04	0.44***	(0.75)
8. Self-affirmation of core values	5.54	1.01	0.00	−0.05	0.08	0.11*	−0.03	0.25***	0.21***	(0.91)
9. Task performance	5.30	0.93	0.16**	−0.03	0.02	0.08*	−0.01	0.16**	0.06	0.32***	(0.91)
10. Helping behavior	2.47	0.96	0.12**	−0.01	0.01	0.07	0.06	0.02	−0.00	0.26***	0.46***	(0.84)

N = 436, Values of Cronbach’s α are presented on the diagonal of the correlation matrix. 0 = female; 1 = male; 1 = less than 21; 2 = 22–30; 3 = 31–40; 4 = 41–50; 5 = more than 50; 0 = high school and lower; 1 = diploma; 2 = bachelor’s degree; 3 = master’s degree; 4 = doctoral degree.

p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; two-tailed.

Similar to the Pilot Study, we conducted Harman’s single-factor test, incorporating all primary variables. The findings suggested that our data were improbable to be affected by common method bias, as evidenced by the single unrotated factor accounting for only 24.12% of the variance. In addition, we used the marker variable technique (Bucic et al., 2017) to further examined the potential influence of common method bias. To be specific, consistent with our expectations for a marker variable, we selected the mean correlation involving “Age” before any adjustments (r_M) which was 0.014, with the p-value suggesting statistical non-significance. When adjusting the correlations among our main constructs to partial out the influence of “Age,” the result showed that the mean change in the correlations of all constructs (r_U−r_A) after partialling out the effect of r_M was approximately 0.0019. This minimal change provides strong evidence that common method bias does not significantly affect our study’s findings, allowing us to proceed with a high degree of confidence in the robustness of our observed relationships. Subsequently, we employed structural equation modeling (SEM) in Mplus 8 to scrutinize our hypotheses. Detailed results of the hypothesis testing can be found in Table 4.

Table 4.

Results for the hypothesized relationships for main study.

	Self-affirmation of core values (T2)				Task performance (T3)				Helping behavior (T3)
	B	SE	B	SE	B	SE	B	SE	B	SE	B	SE
Control variables
Age	0.05	0.05	0.04	0.05	0.13*	0.05	0.12*	0.05	0.18*	0.05	0.18***	0.05
Tenure	−0.02	0.05	−0.02	0.05	0.00	0.00	0.04	0.05	−0.00	0.00	−0.03	0.05
Gender	−0.04	0.05	−0.04	0.05	−0.15	0.09	−0.07	0.05	−0.06	0.09	−0.02	0.05
Education	0.08	0.05	0.08	0.05	−0.01	0.06	−0.01	0.05	0.03	0.06	0.01	0.05
Ethnics	0.10*	0.05	0.10	0.05	0.09	0.05	0.07	0.04	0.07	0.04	0.06	0.05
Independent variable
Leadership development opportunity (T1)	0.26***	0.05	0.25***	0.05	0.02	0.05	−0.049	0.05	0.12**	0.06	0.09	0.05
Mediator
Self-affirmation of core values (T2)							0.25***	0.05			0.30***	0.05
Moderator
Ethnic Identification (T1)			0.06*	0.03
Interaction Effect
Leadership development opportunity × Ethnic Identification			0.09*	0.04

N = 436; T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2; T3 = Time 3.

p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

Specifically, Table 4 reveals that the significantly positive association between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values (B = 0.26, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001), supporting our Hypothesis 1. Self-affirmation of core values was positively related to task performance (B = 0.25, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001) and helping behavior (B = 0.30, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001). Thus, the Hypotheses 2a and 3a were supported. The indirect relationship between leadership development opportunity and task performance through self-affirmation of core values was positive and significant (indirect effect = 0.05, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001). Similarly, the indirect relationship between leadership development opportunity and task performance through self-affirmation of core values was positive and significant (indirect effect = 0.02, SE = 0.02, p < 0.001). Thus, Hypotheses 2b and 3b were supported.

Furthermore, as shown in Table 4, the interaction between leadership development opportunity and ethnic identification was positively associated with self-affirmation of core values (B = 0.09, SE = 0.04, p < 0.05), which indicated a support of Hypothesis 4. We then conducted a simple slope analysis to explore the interaction relationships, as presented in Figures 2. The results in Figure 2 demonstrate that when ethnic identification was high, the relationship between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values were positive and signification (simple slope = 0.55, p < 0.001). While the simple slope results provided further support to Hypothesis 4, the results also indicated that the above relationship was significant (simple slope = 0.45, p < 0.001) when ethnic identification was low.

Figure 2.

Interaction plot.

In addition, the results based on the Monte Carlo method revealed that the indirect relationship between leadership development opportunity and task performance via self-affirmation of core values was positive and significant (estimate = 0.06, SE = 0.02, p = 0.003) when ethnic identification was high. Similarly, the results also revealed that the indirect relationship between leadership development opportunity and helping behavior via self-affirmation of core values was positive and significant (estimate = 0.06, SE = 0.02, p = 0.002) when voice endorsement was high. Thus, the results supported both Hypotheses 5a and 5b.

5.5. Supplementary analysis

In our current study, we acknowledge that there might exist potential directions of reciprocal relationship, though logically, our time-lagged data collection should ensure that the independent variable (i.e. leadership development opportunity) is not influenced by the mediator (i.e. self-affirmation of core values) or outcome variables (i.e. task performance and helping behavior), as the independent variable was measured before the mediator and the outcome variables. Similarly, the time-lagged sequence should ensure that the outcome variables do not influence the mediator, as the mediator was measured before the outcome variables. However, after all, it could be possible that employees who have better job performance may experience enhanced self-affirmation of core values and receive more leadership development opportunities. Thus, we also statistically evaluate the non-presence of reciprocal effects as below.

We followed the approaches recommended by Hayes (2017) using Instrumental Variables (IV) and Two-Stage Least Squares (2SLS) estimation. In this approach, both the mediator and the outcome variables are treated as outcome variables. An instrumental variable must be selected that influences the mediator but is theoretically uncorrelated with the disturbances in the outcome variables. In this regard, as Felson (1981) suggests, the independent variable (i.e. leadership development opportunity in our study) can be used as an instrumental variable to estimate this potential effect. In the first stage of the 2SLS procedure, we regressed self-affirmation of core values, task performance, and helping behavior on the instrumental variable and control variables (i.e. age, gender, education, ethnic group, tenure). The predicted values from these regressions were then used in the second stage to estimate the structural model, allowing for consistent estimates of the causal effects and addressing potential reciprocal relationships. The results reveal that the paths from task performance and helping behavior to the predicated self-affirmation of core values were both insignificant (B = −0.032, p = 0.83 and B = −0.14, p = 0.13, respectively). Moreover, we also examined the reverse path from self-affirmation of core values to the interaction between leadership development opportunity and ethnic identification, and the results also indicate no significant paths (B = 0.029, p = 0.69). Thus, we did not find any empirical support to suggest that job performance predicts Asian employees’ self-affirmation of core values and leadership development opportunities, which supports our current theorizing that leadership development opportunities predict task performance and helping behavior through self-affirmation of core values among Asian employees.

6. General discussion

Asian employees are described as “model minority” and often face challenges and obstacles in career advancement and promotion to leadership positions in Western contexts (Jun et al., 2023; Lu, 2022, 2023, 2024). Our research aims to draw both scholars’ and practitioners’ attention on the “poorly understood racial experiences of Asian employees” (Jun et al., 2023: 240). By conducting two field studies in Australia, our current research provides evidence to shed light on the potential associations between leadership development opportunity and Asian employees’ psychological and behavioral outcomes in the workplace. Overall, the findings of our research suggest that Asian employees who are provided more leadership development opportunities at work are more likely to have a sense of self-affirmation toward their core values. As a result, these employees tend to have enhanced task performance and engage in more helping behavior within the workplace. In addition, our results also reveal that the indirect impact of leadership development opportunity on performance (i.e. task performance and helping behavior in our research), mediated through self-affirmation of core values, is contingent on the level of ethnic identification of this group of employees. When Asian employees strongly identify with their ethnicity, the positive influences of leadership development opportunity on task performance and helping behavior via self-affirmation of core values are amplified.

However, interestingly, based on the results of simple slope test, we also observed that when ethnic identification is low, the relationship between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values was positive and significant (simple slope = 0.45, p < 0.001). The possible explanation is that, although we focus on ethnic identification as a theory-based boundary condition, it is possible that there are other important individual or contextual factors that may moderate the relationship between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values. For example, previous research has suggested that personal differences such as self-esteem and affect may also be key contingents associated with self-affirmation effects (e.g. Zhu and Yzer, 2021). More importantly, the powerful predicting effect of leadership development opportunity on self-affirmation of core values from our results provide firm evidence that Asian employees are eager to acquire potential opportunities to be promoted to leadership role within their workplace, which significantly influences their mindset in the context of Australia.

6.1. Theoretical implications

Our findings advance the literature on ethnic research, leadership, and employee psychology and behaviors at work in a number of ways. First, we contribute to the existing literature by expanding the self-affirmation theory (Aronson et al., 1999; Ott and Moyer-Gusé, 2022; Sherman, 2013; Sherman and Cohen, 2002; Steele, 1988) to the realm of leadership research, particularly from an ethnic perspective. Upon reviewing the literature, we were surprised to find a notable gap in the consideration of individuals’ leadership development through the lens of self-affirmation, with only one study exploring leadership beliefs among teachers in this context (Bolat, 2023). Nevertheless, we recognize the significance of self-affirmation in shaping ethnic minority employees’ psychology and behaviors during their pursuit of leadership representation (e.g. Fast et al., 2014).

In this sense, we draw from the principles of the self-affirmation theory to assert that leadership development opportunities serve as a pivotal antecedent influencing affirmation of core values and subsequent workplace behaviors among Asian employees. Through two field studies (i.e. a pilot investigation and a primary study) conducted in Australia, we empirically find that organizational provision of leadership development opportunities significantly predicts Asian employees’ task performance and helping behavior at work, mediated by heightened self-affirmation of core values. Our findings contribute substantially to reframing discussions on race dynamics within Western workplaces. While the previous literature has shed light on the distinct challenges encountered by Asian employees, often framed within the Bamboo Ceiling phenomenon and the need for increased leadership representation (e.g. Loon, 2022; Lu, 2022), it is noteworthy that such initiatives have not yet to be empirically scrutinized. Therefore, our theoretical framework emphasizing leadership development opportunities to shape positive psychology and work behaviors among Asian employees, supported by evidence from the Australian context, presents a novel and valuable contribution to the organizational management literature, particularly regarding understudied minority groups such as Asians.

Second, using the self-affirmation theory as an overarching guiding theory, our research results uncover the mechanism of self-affirmation of core values through which leadership development opportunity predicts increased performance and prosocial behaviors among Asian employees. These findings reflect broader observations from self-affirmation theorists that “individuals gain self-worth when they are socially valued” (Lee Cunningham et al., 2021: 1818). In this way, our research highlights the self-affirmation process in which leadership development opportunities representing social worth can lift Asian employees’ self-affirmation motivation, which could eventually affect their in-role and extra-role performance at work. Given that, our present research not only expands theoretical framework of the self-affirmation theory to cultural and ethnic research in organizational management discipline but also unveils key mechanism and outcomes that mitigate barriers faced by Asian employees in their professional trajectories.

Third, our research significantly advances the study of ethnic identification. Unlike previous studies that mainly focused on organizational or professional identities (e.g. Hekman et al., 2009; Zhao et al., 2019), we introduce a more nuanced perspective by examining the ethnic identification of Asian employees. By integrating ethnic identification into the self-affirmation process, our study empirically shows that a stronger ethnic identity among Asian employees enhances their positive affirmation of core values in response to leadership development opportunities. This finding highlights an important boundary within the self-affirmation process and underscores the need for further exploration of racial dynamics in the workplace, addressing calls to integrate sociological and psychological constructs in understanding the Bamboo Ceiling (Lu, 2022). In addition, by highlighting that organizational initiatives which are inclusive and mindful of the complexities of ethnic identity, our research also contributes to broader ethics in leadership development. Indeed, ethical leadership development involves not only offering opportunities but also fostering environments where diverse identities are valued and supported without reinforcing stereotypes (Dang et al., 2023). Particularly, Payne and Keeffe (2023) point out that leadership programs should take ethics into consideration and avoid tokenism and the unintended implication that certain ethnic groups need extra assistance to succeed. Instead, they should focus on empowering employees of all backgrounds to leverage their unique strengths, ensuring equitable access to leadership roles while promoting authenticity and personal growth (Warren and Warren, 2023). By incorporating these ethical considerations, organizations can create more inclusive and effective leadership development initiatives that respect the intersectionality of race, culture, and identity.

Finally, our research focusing on Asian–Australians also presents a significant contribution within the broader landscape of studies concerning Asian employees in Western organizations. While the predominant focus on Asian–Americans in previous research led to valuable insights (e.g. Jun et al., 2023; Lu, 2022, 2023, 2024), it is limited to acknowledge the diverse societal and organizational landscapes present in different Western countries. By directing attention to Asian–Australians, our research allows for a more nuanced examination of cultural dynamics, workplace experiences, and the intersection of ethnicity and career progression within the context of Australia. Therefore, our research provides a more comprehensive and inclusive understanding of the challenges and potentials faced by Asian individuals in Western workplaces.

6.2. Practical implications

Our research has made several important practical implications. Specifically, a primary implication of this research is the need for Western organizations to develop targeted leadership development opportunities specifically tailored to the needs and values of Asian employees (i.e. Asian–Australian employees in our case). In particular, our research findings emphasize that by offering appropriate leadership development opportunities, organizations can help close representation gaps, ensuring that Asian employees’ voices are heard, and their unique experiences are integrated into decision-making processes (Lu, 2022). This not only fosters positive psychological outcomes and behaviors among Asian employees but also reinforces the organization’s ethical commitment to diversity, demonstrating that growth and advancement opportunities are accessible to individuals from all backgrounds. Ultimately, ethically providing leadership development to Asian employees is expected to build organizational reputation and bolster the organization’s long-term success and resilience in an increasingly diverse and globalized world.

Second, by highlighting the connections between leadership initiatives, self-affirmation of core values, and employees’ task performance and helping behavior, our research informs contemporary human resource management (HRM) and encourages organizations to reconsider their performance evaluation and recognition systems to better account for the unique challenges and contributions of Asian employees (e.g. AbuKhalifeh and Som, 2013). Specifically, our findings show that self-affirmation of core values positively influences both task performance and helping behavior among Asian–Australian employees. In light of this, it is crucial to acknowledge and reward employees who demonstrate growth in these areas. Recognizing and valuing the cultural identities and contributions of Asian employees can further motivate them, driving continued positive outcomes and engagement. This approach not only promotes inclusivity within HR practices but also helps create a high-performing work environment overall (Ram et al., 2022).

In addition, by integrating with our current findings and considering the dynamic nature of organizational environments and the potential for change over time, practitioners should also recognize the importance of implementing comprehensive and sustained leadership development programs that extend beyond short-term interventions. Specifically, organizations ought to invest in prolonged strategies that offer ongoing guidance and educational prospects to employees, enabling them to refine their leadership proficiencies and self-awareness gradually. For instance, in line with our findings, we propose that supervisors can capitalize on the beneficial correlation between leadership advancement and self-validation by integrating reflective techniques and feedback mechanisms into leadership development schemes. This approach encourages employees to routinely evaluate their principles, strengths, and areas for growth, thereby amplifying their perception of self-value and assurance in their leadership capabilities, ultimately leading to enhanced job performance.

Finally, recognizing the significance of ethnic identification as a moderator highlights the importance of fostering an inclusive workplace culture. Organizations should invest in diversity and inclusion initiatives that promote a sense of belonging among Asian–Australian employees and those from various ethnic backgrounds. For example, this can be achieved through measures such as diversity training, cultural sensitivity programs, and mentorship opportunities that celebrate and honor core values and identities (e.g. Zhang, 2023). By doing so, organizations can further enhance the positive impact of leadership development programs on both task performance and helping behavior among this specific group of employees.

6.3. Limitations and future directions

Our research also presents several limitations that offer avenues for future exploration in this field. Methodologically, although we used a multi-timepoint design for data collection, establishing clear cause-and-effect relationships remains challenging. In our research, participants assessed leadership development opportunities and performance at Time 1 and 3, respectively. However, it is possible that higher performers received more leadership development opportunities. We also acknowledge the need to consider the longitudinal dynamics of leadership development, as its effects unfold over time through the process of self-affirmation. Thus, future research could explore this further using longitudinal designs or experimental interventions to clarify the impact on positive psychology and workplace behaviors among Asian employees. Another limitation of our study is the reliance on self-reported measures for all variables. To minimize attrition in our focus on Asian employees and the multi-timepoint design, all variables were assessed through self-reports. Although our analyses showed that common method bias was not a major issue, future research could adopt a multi-source design. Including supervisors’ ratings of performance outcomes could help reduce the potential for common method bias. In addition, while we adapted Kraimer et al.’s (2011) scale to measure leadership development opportunities for Asian employees, it mainly assesses whether organizations offer such training, not whether employees use or find it effective. This is a key limitation, as availability alone does not capture the full impact of these initiatives. Future research should develop measures that assess both employee engagement with the training and their perceptions of its effectiveness. This would provide a more complete understanding of how leadership development programs contribute to the growth of Asian employees.

Second, although our research focused on the psychological and behavioral responses of Asian employees, we did not explore differences between subgroups within the Asian community (Jun et al., 2023). Asian–Australians include groups such as East Asian, South Asian, and Southeast Asian, each with potentially unique workplace experiences. Given that extant studies show that the Bamboo Ceiling may affect East Asians but not South Asians, while others suggest it impacts all Asian groups in Western contexts (Loon, 2022, 2024), we recommend that future research address these subgroup differences (Kuo et al., 2020) to better understand the Bamboo Ceiling. In addition, while we based our model on the Bamboo Ceiling as a cultural issue in Western contexts (e.g. Lu, 2022; Yu, 2020), we did not consider other cultural or social factors. For example, Asian cultures emphasize collectivism and higher power distance (Chiu et al., 2018), while Western societies encourage individualism and lower power distance. These cultural differences may affect how Asian employees respond to leadership development opportunities, and future studies should examine these cultural nuances when researching Asian leadership representation in Western contexts.

Third, our focus on Asian employees in Australia may limit the generalizability of our findings. While most prior research has centered on Asian–Americans, our study extends this by examining the experiences of Asian employees in the Australian context. However, as, psychological and behavioral responses are often shaped by the unique cultural, organizational, and societal contexts of different regions, future research should replicate our study across other Western and non-Western contexts to better tailor strategies for supporting Asian employees and fostering inclusive work environments.

Finally, while we found that leadership development opportunities can enhance Asian employees’ performance through self-affirmation, ethnically focused programs may unintentionally reinforce stereotypes and pressure Asian employees to pursue leadership roles. Singling out one ethnic group for special support could imply that Asians need extra help to succeed, limiting their ability to explore other career paths (Flores and Matkin, 2014). Therefore, future studies should adopt a holistic approach to diversity and inclusion, considering the intersectional factors like gender, socioeconomic background, and immigration status that influence leadership journeys for Asian and other minority groups.

7. Conclusion

In conclusion, this research has shed light on the dynamics of leadership development opportunities, self-affirmation of core values, ethnic identification, and performance (i.e. task performance and helping behavior) among Asian–Australian employees. Moreover, the study illuminates the nuanced role of ethnic identification as a moderator, demonstrating that its strength significantly amplifies the positive impact of leadership development on performance through self-affirmation. This insight carries substantial implications for organizations seeking to enhance their leadership development programs and underscores the importance of fostering a sense of cultural belonging and identity among Asian–Australian employees. Ultimately, these insights can inform organizations and leaders on how to tailor their strategies to maximize the benefits of leadership development initiatives for a diverse workforce.

Key Practical and Research Implications

Organizations should design leadership programs tailored to the unique needs of Asian–Australian employees to help close representation gaps and leverage their contributions effectively. In addition, organizations should revamp performance evaluation systems to account for the unique challenges faced by Asian employees, ensuring their contributions are appropriately recognized and rewarded.

Executives are suggested to not only promote leadership diversity by actively supporting and mentoring Asian employees for leadership roles; but also ensure that leadership initiatives can empower employees across all backgrounds without reinforcing stereotypes or tokenism.

Industrial bodies may consider establishing industry-wide benchmarks for diversity and inclusion to encourage consistent practices across organizations. In particular, it is necessary to support collaborative efforts aimed at improving the leadership representation of Asian employees in decision-making processes.

Government agencies are encouraged to develop policies that incentivize organizations to invest in diversity-focused leadership training. Furthermore, government agencies should take the responsibilities such as monitoring and evaluation. For example, implement mechanisms to track progress on leadership diversity focusing on underrepresented groups like Asian employees.

Tertiary institutions may play an important role in curriculum development (e.g. integrating courses emphasizing diversity management and leadership development tailored to underrepresented groups, and partnerships with industry (e.g. collaborating with organizations to provide mentorship and leadership training opportunities for Asian students and graduates).

Future research is encouraged to continue with this line of research from several aspects: (1) conduct long-term studies to explore the sustained effects of leadership development on self-affirmation and performance among Asian employees; (2) investigate how cultural nuances influence the outcomes of leadership initiatives in different contexts; and (3) examine how factors like gender, socioeconomic background, and immigration status interact with ethnic identity to shape career outcomes.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The author would like to acknowledge the constructive comments provided during the review process by the editorial and reviewing team.

Final transcript accepted 13 February 2025 by Amy Tian (AE HRM).

Data availability

Data for this research were acquired from September 2023 to early 2024 and only used in this research and not anywhere else. The data that support the findings of this research are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical approval

All data were collected following ethical principles for dealing with human subjects.

ORCID iD

Chao Ma

References

Abascal

(2015) Us and them: Black-White relations in the wake of Hispanic population growth. American Sociological Review 80: 789–813.

AbuKhalifeh

Som

Ag PM

(2013) The antecedents affecting employee engagement and organizational performance. Asian Social Science 9: 41–46.

Armenta

Knight

Carlo

, et al. (2011) The relation between ethnic group attachment and prosocial tendencies: The mediating role of cultural values. European Journal of Social Psychology 41: 107–115.

Aronson

Cohen

Nail

(1999) Self-affirmation theory: An update and appraisal. In: Mills

(ed.) Cognitive Dissonance: Progress on a Pivotal Theory in Social Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 127–147.

Arun

Kahraman Gedik

(2022) Impact of Asian cultural values upon leadership roles and styles. International Review of Administrative Sciences 88: 428–448.

Avolio

Hannah

(2008) Developmental readiness: Accelerating leader development. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research 60: 331–347.

Bahzar

(2019) Authentic leadership in madrassas: Asserting Islamic values in teacher performance. Journal of Social Studies Education Research 10: 259–284.

Bolat

(2023) The impact of self-affirmation on teacher leadership: An experimental design. Journal of Theoretical Educational Science 16: 868–886.

Bucic

Ngo

Sinha

(2017) Improving the effectiveness of market-oriented organisation: Empirical evidence from an emerging economy. Australian Journal of Management 42: 308–327.

10.

Carroll

Levy

(2010) Leadership development as identity construction. Management Communication Quarterly 24: 211–231.

11.

Cheng

Bonacich

(2021) Labor Immigration Under Capitalism: Asian Workers in the United States Before World War II. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

12.

Chiu

Lin

Tsai

, et al. (2018) Enhancing knowledge sharing in high-tech firms: The moderating role of collectivism and power distance. Cross Cultural & Strategic Management 25: 468–491.

13.

Choi

(2006) Multilevel and cross-level effects of workplace attitudes and group member relations on interpersonal helping behavior. Human Performance 19: 383–402.

14.

Cohen

Garcia

(2008) Identity, belonging, and achievement: A model, interventions, implications. Current Directions in Psychological Science 17: 365–369.

15.

Cohen

Sherman

(2014) The psychology of change: Self-affirmation and social psychological intervention. Annual Review of Psychology 65: 333–371.

16.

Dang

Volpone

Umphress

(2023) The ethics of diversity ideology: Consequences of leader diversity ideology on ethical leadership perception and organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology 108: 307–329.

17.

De Klerk

Verreynne

(2017) The networking practices of women managers in an emerging economy setting: Negotiating institutional and social barriers. Human Resource Management Journal 27: 477–501.

18.

Easterbrook

Harris

Sherman

(2021) Self-affirmation theory in educational contexts. Journal of Social Issues 77: 683–701.

19.

Fast

Burris

Bartel

(2014) Managing to stay in the dark: Managerial self-efficacy, ego defensiveness, and the aversion to employee voice. Academy of Management Journal 57: 1013–1034.

20.

Felson

(1981) Self-and reflected appraisal among football players: A test of the Meadian hypothesis. Social Psychology Quarterly 44: 116–126.

21.

Flores

Matkin

(2014) “Take your own path”: minority leaders encountering and overcoming barriers in cultural community centers. Journal of Cultural Diversity 21: 5–14.

22.

Goyer

Garcia

Purdie-Vaughns

, et al. (2017) Self-affirmation facilitates minority middle schoolers’ progress along college trajectories. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114: 7594–7599.

23.

Harris

Ogbonna

(2023) Equal opportunities but unequal mentoring? The perceptions of mentoring by Black and minority ethnic academics in the UK university sector. Human Resource Management Journal 33: 940–956.

24.

Harris

Griffin

Napper

, et al. (2019) Individual differences in self-affirmation: Distinguishing self-affirmation from positive self-regard. Self and Identity 18: 589–630.

25.

Hayes

(2017) Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. New York: Guilford Publications.

26.

Hekman

Steensma

Bigley

, et al. (2009) Effects of organizational and professional identification on the relationship between administrators’ social influence and professional employees’ adoption of new work behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology 94: 1325–1335.

27.

Henze

Norte

Sather

, et al. (2002) Leading for Diversity: How School Leaders Promote Positive Interethnic Relations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

28.

Howell

(2017) Self-affirmation theory and the science of well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies 18: 293–311.

29.

Jun

Phillips

Foster-Gimbel

(2023) The missing middle: Asian employees’ experience of workplace discrimination and pro-black allyship. Journal of Applied Psychology 108: 225–248.

30.

Kawahara

Esnil

Hsu

(2007) Asian American women leaders: The intersection of race, gender, and leadership. In: Chin

Lott

Rice

, et al. (eds) Women and Leadership: Transforming Visions and Diverse Voices. Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 297–313.

31.

Kim

Brockner

Block

(2022) Tailoring the intervention to the self: Congruence between self-affirmation and self-construal mitigates the gender gap in quantitative performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 169: 104118.

32.

Kraimer

Seibert

Wayne

, et al. (2011) Antecedents and outcomes of organizational support for development: The critical role of career opportunities. Journal of Applied Psychology 96: 485–500.

33.

Kuo

Kraus

Richeson

(2020) High-status exemplars and the misperception of the Asian-White wealth gap. Social Psychological and Personality Science 11: 397–405.

34.

Lee Cunningham

Gino

Cable

, et al. (2021) Seeing oneself as a valued contributor: Social worth affirmation improves team information sharing. Academy of Management Journal 64: 1816–1841.

35.

Loon

(2022) Fostering Culturally Diverse Leadership in Organisations: Lessons from Those Who Smashed the Bamboo Ceiling. New York: Taylor & Francis.

36.

Loon

(2024) The conflict between organizational goals and local initiatives, individualism, and collectivism: Examples of DEI initiatives and implementation in the accounting profession in the Asia Pacific. In: Srinidhi

(ed.) Why Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Matter: Challenges and Solutions. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company, pp. 139–162.

37.

(2022) A social network perspective on the Bamboo Ceiling: Ethnic homophily explains why East Asians but not South Asians are underrepresented in leadership in multiethnic environments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 122: 959–982.

38.

(2023) Asians don’t ask? Relational concerns, negotiation propensity, and starting salaries. Journal of Applied Psychology 108: 273–290.

39.

(2024) A creativity stereotype perspective on the Bamboo Ceiling: Low perceived creativity explains the underrepresentation of East Asian leaders in the United States. Journal of Applied Psychology 109: 238–256.

40.

Luksyte

Carpini

(2024) Perceived overqualification and subjective career success: Is harmonious or obsessive passion beneficial? Applied Psychology 73: 2077–2106.

41.

(2024) Perceived overqualification under multi-cultural context: Ethnic consideration, review, and research agenda. Current Psychology 43: 22346–22360.

42.

Ganegoda

Chen

, et al. (2020) Effects of perceived overqualification on career distress and career planning: Mediating role of career identity and moderating role of leader humility. Human Resource Management 59: 521–536.

43.

Methot

Lepine

Podsakoff

, et al. (2016) Are workplace friendships a mixed blessing? Exploring tradeoffs of multiplex relationships and their associations with job performance. Personnel Psychology 69: 311–355.

44.

Muthén

(2017) Mplus User’s Guide. 8th ed. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

45.

Nagoshi

Marsiglia

Parsai

, et al. (2011) The moderating effects of ethnic identification on the relationship between parental monitoring and substance use in Mexican heritage adolescents in the Southwest United States. Journal of Community Psychology 39: 520–533.

46.

Ott

Moyer-Gusé

(2022) Vicarious self-affirmation: Understanding key mechanisms. Media Psychology 25: 1–26.

47.

Payne

Keeffe

(2023) Advancing meaningful inclusion in the workplace: A model for avoiding tokenism and marginalization. In: Dogru

(ed.) Role of Human Resources for Inclusive Leadership, Workplace Diversity, and Equity in Organizations. Hershey, PA: IGI Global, pp. 1–19.

48.

Phinney

Horenczyk

Liebkind

, et al. (2001) Ethnic identity, immigration, and well-being: An interactional perspective. Journal of Social Issues 57: 493–510.

49.

Podsakoff

MacKenzie

Lee

, et al. (2003) Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology 88: 879–903.

50.

Ram

McCarthy

Green

, et al. (2022) Towards a more inclusive human resource community: Engaging ethnic minority microbusinesses in human resource development programmes targeted at more productive methods of operating. Human Resource Management Journal 32: 540–554.

51.

Ramasubramanian

Doshi

Saleem

(2017) Mainstream versus ethnic media: How they shape ethnic pride and self-esteem among ethnic minority audiences. International Journal of Communication 11: 1879–1900.

52.

Reams

Fikse

Ness

(2020) Leadership development laboratory. In: Reams

(ed.) Maturing Leadership: How Adult Development Impacts Leadership. Bingley: Emerald Publishing Limited, pp. 37–57.

53.

Schimel

Arndt

Banko

, et al. (2004) Not all self-affirmations were created equal: The cognitive and social benefits of affirming the intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) self. Social Cognition 22: 75–99.

54.

Schnall

Roper

(2012) Elevation puts moral values into action. Social Psychological and Personality Science 3: 373–378.

55.

Schneider

Weber

(2022) Motivating prosocial behavior by leveraging positive self-regard through values affirmation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 52: 106–114.

56.

Shen

Lam

Varty

, et al. (2024) Diversity climate affords unequal protection against incivility among Asian workers: The COVID-19 pandemic as a racial mega-threat. Applied Psychology 73: 34–56.

57.

Sherman

(2013) Self-affirmation: Understanding the effects. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 7: 834–845.

58.

Sherman

Cohen

(2002) Accepting threatening information: Self–Affirmation and the reduction of defensive biases. Current Directions in Psychological Science 11: 119–123.

59.

Sherman

Cohen

(2006) The psychology of self-defence: Self-affirmation theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 38: 183–242.

60.

Sherman

Hartson

(2011) Reconciling self-protection with self-improvement. Handbook of Self-Enhancement and Self-Protection 128: 128–151.

61.

Steele

(1988) The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In: Berkowitz

(ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 21. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press, pp. 261–302.

62.

Tram-Quon

Leung

(2017) Developing minority leaders: Key success factors of Asian Americans. Asian American Journal of Psychology 8: 142–155.

63.

Tangirala

Ramanujam

(2008) Exploring nonlinearity in employee voice: The effects of personal control and organizational identification. Academy of Management Journal 51: 1189–1203.

64.

Thorbjørnsen

Supphellen

(2011) Determinants of core value behavior in service brands. Journal of Services Marketing 25: 68–76.

65.

Ting

Hwang

(2009) Cultural influences on help-seeking attitudes in Asian American students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 79: 125–132.

66.

Vohs

Park

Schmeichel

(2013) Self-affirmation can enable goal disengagement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 104: 14–27.

67.

Wang

Yuan

Wang

(2022) Growth mindset and academic achievement in Chinese adolescents: A moderated mediation model of reasoning ability and self-affirmation. Current Psychology 41: 783–792.

68.

Warren

(2023) The EThIC model of virtue-based allyship development: A new approach to equity and inclusion in organizations. Journal of Business Ethics 182: 783–803.

69.

, et al. (2022) Community citizenship behavior in rural tourism destinations: Scale development and validation. Tourism Management 89: 104457.

70.

Yip

Cheah

CSL

Kiang

, et al. (2021) Rendered invisible: Are Asian Americans a model or a marginalized minority? The American Psychologist 76: 575–581.

71.

(2020) Revisiting the Bamboo Ceiling: Perceptions from Asian Americans on experiencing workplace discrimination. Asian American Journal of Psychology 11: 158–167.

72.

Zhang

(2023) Racial Inequality in work environments. American Sociological Review 88: 252–283.

73.

Zhao

Liu

, et al. (2019) Leader–member exchange, organizational identification, and knowledge hiding: The moderating role of relative leader–member exchange. Journal of Organizational Behavior 40: 834–848.

74.

Zhao

(2023) Too smart to work hard? Investigating why overqualified employees engage in time theft behaviors. Human Resource Management 62: 971–987.

75.

Zhu

Yzer

(2021) Understanding self-affirmation effects: The moderating role of self-esteem. British Journal of Health Psychology 26: 1016–1039.

76.

Zuo

Cai

Huang

, et al. (2023) Population migration damages the natural environment: A multilevel investigation of the relationship between residential mobility and pro-environmental behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 49: 758–772.