StrattonC.W.Bacterial pneumonias—an overview with emphasis on pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment.Heart Lung1986; 15: 226–244.
3.
OrtqvistA.Prognosis in community-acquired pneumonia requiring treatment in hospital. Importance of predisposing and complicating factors, and of diagnostic procedures.Scan J Infect Dis Suppl1990; 65: 1–62.
4.
AustrianR., GoldJ.Pneumococcal bacteremia with especial reference to bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia.Ann Intern Med1964; 60: 759–776.
5.
RogersR.M., WeilerC., RuppenthalB.Impact of the respiratory care unit on survival of patients with acute respiratory failure.Chest1972; 62: 94.
6.
FineM.J., SmithD.N., SingerD.E.Hospitalization decision in patients with community-acquired pneumonia: a prospective cohort study.Am J Med1990; 89: 713–721.
7.
GaribaldiR.A.Epidemiology of community acquired respiratory tract infections in adults.Am J Med1985; 78(Suppl 6b): 32–37.
8.
SorensenJ., CederholmI., CarlssonC.Pneumonia: a deadly disease despite intensive care treatment.Scan J Infect Dis1986; 18: 329–335.
9.
SorensenJ., ForsbergP., HakansonE., MallerR., SederholmC., SorenL., CarlssonC.A new diagnostic approach to the patient with severe pneumonia.Scand J Infect Dis1989; 21: 33–41.
10.
LevyM., DromerF., BrionN., LeturduF., CarbonC.Community-acquired pneumonia. Importance of initial non-invasive bacteriologic and radiographic investigations.Chest1988; 93: 43–48.
11.
TorresA., Serra-BatllesJ., FerrerA.. Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Epidemiology and prognostic factors.Am Rev Respir Dis1991; 144: 312–318.
12.
AlkhayerM., JenkinsP.F., HarrisonB.D.The outcome of community acquired pneumonia treated on the intensive care unit.Respir Med1990; 84: 13–16.
FeldmanC., KallenbachJ.M., LevyH.. Community-acquired pneumonia of diverse aetiology: prognostic features in patients admitted to an intensive care unit and a “severity of illness” core.Intensive Care Med1989; 15: 302–307.
15.
van EedenS.F., CoetzeeA.R., JoubertJ.R.Community-acquired pneumonia—factors influencing intensive care admission.S Afr Med J1988; 73: 77–81.
16.
HookE.W., HortonC.A., SchabergD.R.Failure of intensive care unit support to influence mortality from pneumococcal bacteremia.JAMA1983; 249: 1055–1057.
17.
KnausW.A.Changing the cause of death (editorial).JAMA1983; 249: 1059–1060.
Moine P, Vercken J-B, Chevret S, Chastang C, Gajdos P, and French Study Group for Community-Acquired Pneumonia in the Intensive Care Unit.Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Etiology, epidemiology and prognosis factors.Chest1994; 105: 1487–1495.
20.
RelloJ., QuintanaE., AusinaV., NetA., PratsG.A three-year study of severe community-acquired pneumonia with emphasis on outcome.Chest1993; 103: 232–235.
21.
FarrB.M., SlomanA.J., FischM.J.Predicting death in patients hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia.Ann Intern Med1991; 115: 428–436.
22.
LeroyO., SantreC., BeuscartC., GeorgesH., GueryB., JacquierJ.M., BeaucaireG.A five-year study of severe community acquired pneumonia with emphasis on prognosis in patients admitted to an intensive care unit.Intensive Care Med1995; 21: 24–31.
23.
FangG., FineM., OrloffJ.. New and emerging etiologies for community-acquired pneumonia with implications for therapy: a prospective multicenter study of 359 cases.Medicine1990; 69: 307–316.
24.
FineM.J., OrloffJ.J., ArisumiD.. Prognosis of patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia.Am J Med1990; 88[Suppl 5]: 1N–8N.
25.
SanfordJ.P.Lower respiratory tract infections. In: BennettJ.V., BrachmanP.S., eds. Hospital Infections.Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1986: 385–422.
26.
LimI., ShawD.R., StanleyD.P., LumbR., McLennanG.A prospective hospital study of the aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia.Med J Aust1989; 151: 87–91.
27.
AounM., KlasterskyJ.Drug treatment of pneumonia in the hospital.What are the choices? Drugs1991; 42: 962–973.
28.
DahmashN.S., ChowdhuryM.N.Re-evaluation of pneumonia requiring admission to an intensive care unit: a prospective study.Thorax1994; 49: 71–76.
29.
American Thoracic Society.Guidelines for the initial management of adults with community-acquired pneumonia: diagnosis, assessment of severity, and initial antimicrobial therapy.Am Rev Respir Dis1993; 148: 1418–1426.
30.
OrtqvistA., SternerG., NilssonJ.A.Severe community-acquired pneumonia: factors influencing need of intensive care treatment and prognosis.Scand J Infect Dis1985; 17: 377–386.
31.
MacFarlaneJ.T.Treatment of lower respiratory infections.Lancet1987; 2: 1446–1449.
The British Thoracic Society Research Committee and The Public Health Laboratory Service.The aetiology, management and outcome of severe community-acquired pneumonia on the intensive care unit.Respir Med1992; 86: 7–13.
34.
Research Committee of the British Thoracic Society and the Public Health Laboratory Service.Community-acquired pneumonia in adults in British hospitals in 1982-1983: a survey of aetiology, mortality, prognostic factors and outcome.Q J Med1987; 62: 195–220.
35.
WoodheadM.A., MacfarlaneJ.T., RodgersF.G., LaverickA., PilkingtonR., MacraeA.D.Aetiology and outcome of severe community-acquired pneumonia.J Infect1985; 10: 204–210.
36.
PetheramI.S., BranthwaiteM.A.Mechanical ventilation for pulmonary disease.Anaesthesia1980; 35: 467–473.
37.
ChoiW.I., SohnJ.H., KwunO.Y., HeoJ.S., WhangJ.S., HanS.B., JeonY.J.Clinical manifestations of patients dying of severe community acquired pneumonia.Tuberc Respir Dis1994; 41: 537–545.
38.
OrtqvistA., GrepeA., JulanderI., KalinM.Bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia in Sweden: clinical course and outcome and comparison with non-bacteremic pneumococcal and mycoplasmal pneumonias.Scand J Infect Dis1988; 20: 163–171.
39.
MaNabbW.R., ShansonD.C., WilliamsT.D.M., LantA.F.Adult community-acquired pneumonia in central London.J Roy Soc Med1984; 77: 550–555.
40.
GoldM.I., ShinB.H.Respiratory care in the absence of a respiratory care unit.Chest1974; 65: 388–393.
41.
PotgeiterP.D., RosenthalE., BenatarS.R.Immediate and long-term survival in patients admitted to a respiratory ICU.Crit Care Med1985; 13: 798–802.
42.
VasilyevS., SchaapR.N., MortensenJ.D.Hospital survival rates of patients with acute respiratory failure in modern respiratory intensive care units. An international, multicenter, prospective survey.Chest1995; 107: 1083–1088.
43.
Le GallJ.R., LoiratPh, AlperovitchA.Simplified acute physiological score for intensive care patients.Lancet1983; 2: 741.
44.
KnausW.A., ZimmermanJ.E., WagnerD.P., DraperE.A., LawrenceD.E.Apache: acute physiology and chronic health evaluation: a physiologically based classification system.Crit Care Med1981; 9: 591.
45.
KnausW.A., DraperE.A., WagnerD.P., ZimmermanJ.E.Apache II: a severity of disease classification system.Crit Care Med1985; 13: 818–829.
46.
DurocherA., SaulnierF., BeuscartR.. A comparison of three severity score indexes in an evaluation of serious bacterial pneumonia.Intensive Care Med1988; 14: 39–43.
47.
WoodheadM.A., RadivanJ., MacfarlaneJ.T.Adult community-acquired staphylococcal pneumonia in the antibiotic era: a review of 61 cases.Q J Med1987; 64: 783–790.
48.
OrtqvistA., HedlundJ., GrillnerL.. Aetiology, outcome and prognostic factors in community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization.Eur Resp J1990; 3: 1105–1113.
49.
ChenC.W., JongG.M., ShiauJ.J., HsiueT.R., ChangH.Y., ChuangY.C.Adult bacteremic pneumonia: bacteriology and prognostic factors.J Formos Med Assoc1992; 91: 754–759.
50.
JongG., HsiueT., ChenC., ChangH., ChenC.Rapidly fatal outcome of bacteraemic Klebsiella pneumoniae pneumonia in alcoholics.Chest1995; 107: 214–217.
51.
LimsonB.M., RomanskyM.J., SheaJ.G.An evaluation of 22 patients with acute and chronic pulmonary infection with Friedlander's bacillus.Ann Intern Med1956; 44: 1070–1081.
52.
CardenD.L., GibbK.A.Pneumonia and lung abscess.Emerg Med Clin North Am1983; 1: 345–370.
53.
WallaertB., AertsC., ColombelJ.F., VoisinC.Human alveolar macrophage antibacterial activity in the alcoholic lung.Am Rev Respir Dis1991; 144: 278–283.
54.
BomalaskiJ.S., PhairJ.P.Alcohol, immunosuppression, and the lung.Arch Intern Med1982; 142: 2073–2074.
55.
McCabeW.R., JacksonC.G.Gram-negative bacteremia: etiology and ecology.Arch Intern Med1962; 110: 847–855.
56.
SeedatM.A., FeldmanC., SkoularigisJ., PromnitzD.A., SmithC., ZwiS.A study of acute community-acquired pneumonia, including details of cardiac changes.Q J Med1993; 86: 669–675.
57.
LimthongkulS., CharoenlapP.Community and hospital-acquired pneumonia in medical intensive care unit.J Med Assoc Thai1993; 76: 129–137.
58.
DahmashN.S., AroraS.C., FayedD.F., Chowdhury. Infections in critically ill patients: experience in MICU at a major teaching hospital.Infection1994; 22: 264–270.
59.
FeldmanC., KallenbachJ.M., LevyH., ThorburnJ.R., HurwitzM.D., KoornhofH.J.Comparison of bacteraemic community-acquired lobar pneumonia due to Streptococcus pneumoniae and Klebsiella pneumoniae in an intensive care unit.Respiration1991; 58: 265–270.
60.
FineM.J., SingerD.E., HanusaB.H., LaveJ.R., KapoorW.N.Validation of a pneumonia prognostic index using the Medisgroups comparative hospital database.Am J Med1993; 94: 153–159.
61.
CecilR.L., BaldwinH.S., LarsenN.P.Lobar pneumonia. A clinical and bacteriological study of two thousand typed cases.Arch Intern Med1927; 40: 253–280.
62.
WoodheadM.A., MacfarlaneJ.T., McCrackenJ.S., RoseD.H., FinchR.G.Prospective study of the aetiology and outcome of pneumonia in the community.Lancet1987; 2: 671–674.
63.
FeldmanC., KallenbachJ.M., MillerS.D., ThornburnJ.R., KoornhofH.J.Community acquired pneumonia due to penicillin-resistant pneumococci.N Engl J Med1985; 313: 615–617.
64.
LamW.K., ChauP.Y., ChanJ.C.K., IpM.S.M.Ofloxacin vs cefuroxime in the treatment of lower respiratory infections in moderately immunocompromised patients.Drugs1993; 45(Suppl.): 72–33.
65.
MooreM.A., MersonM.H., CharacheP., ShepardR.H.The characteristics and mortality of out-patient acquired pneumonia.Johns Hopkins Med J1977; 140: 9–14.
66.
VergheseA., BerkS.L.Bacterial pneumonia in the elderly.Medicine1983; 62: 271–285.
FarrB.M., KaiserD.L., HarrisonB.D.W., ConnollyC.K.Prediction of microbial aetiology at admission to hospital for pneumonia from the presenting clinical features.Thorax1989; 44: 1031–1035.
72.
OrtqvistA., KalinM., LejdgebornL., LundbergB.Diagnostic fibreoptic bronchoscopy and protected brush culture in patients with community-acquired pneumonia.Chest1990; 97: 576–582.
73.
Barret-ConnorE.Non-value of sputum cultures in the diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia.Am Rev Resp Dis1971; 103: 845–848.
74.
DansP.E., CharacheP., FaheyM., OtterS.E.Management of pneumonia in the prospective payment era.Arch Intern Med1984; 144: 1392–1397.
75.
LouriaD.B.Uses of quantitative analyses of bacterial populations in sputum.JAMA1972; 182: 1082–1086.
PirtleJ.K., MonroeP.W., SmalleyT.S., MohrJ.A., RhoadesE.R.Diagnostic and therapeutic advantages of serial quantitative cultures of fresh sputum in acute bacterial pneumonia.Am Rev Respir Dis1969; 100: 831–838.
78.
TobinM.J.Diagnosis of pneumonia: techniques and problems.Clin Chest Med1987; 8: 513–527.
79.
HolmbergH.Aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia in hospital treated patients.Scan J Infect Dis1987; 19: 491–501.
MattthewA.B., HolstromF.M.G., KasparR.L.A simple method for diagnosing pneumonia in intubated or tracheostomized patients.Crit Care Med1977; 5: 76–81
83.
PallaresR., GudiolF., LinaresJ.. Risk factors and response to antibiotic therapy in adults with bacteremic pneumonia caused by penicillin-resistant pneumococci.N Engl J Med1987; 317: 18–22.
84.
KalinskeR.W., ParkerR.H., BrandtD., HoeprichP.D.Diagnostic usefulness and safety of transtracheal aspiration.N Engl J Med1967; 276: 604–608.
85.
PecoraD.V.A method for securing uncontaminated secretions for bacterial contamination.J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg1959; 37: 653–654.
86.
OrtqvistA., JonssonI., KalinM., KrookA.Comparison of three methods for detection of pneumococcal antigen in sputum of patients with community-acquired pneumonia.Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis1989; 8: 956–961.
87.
BrochardL., ManceboJ., WysockiM.. Efficacy of non-invasive ventilation for treatment of acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.N Engl J Med1995; 333: 817–822.
88.
MeduriG.U., TurnerR.E., Abou-ShalaN., WunderinkR.G., TolleyE.Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation via face-mask: first-line intervention in patients with acute hypercapnic and hypoxaemic respiratory failure.Chest1996; 109: 179–193.
89.
MeadJ., TakishimaT., LeithD.Stress distribution in lungs: a model of pulmonary elasticity.J Appl Physiol1970; 28: 596–608.
90.
SlutskyA.S.Consensus conference on mechanical ventilation—January 28-30, 1993 at Northbrook, Illinois, USA. Parts 1 & 2.Intensive Care Med1994; 20: 64–79, 150-162.
TuxenD.V.Permissive hypercapnic ventilation.Am J Respir Crit Care Med1994; 150: 870–974.
93.
BidaniA.Permissive hypercapnia in acute respiratory failure.JAMA1994; 272: 957–962.
94.
PlummerA.L., GraceyD.R.Consensus conference on artificial airways in patients receiving mechanical ventilation.Chest1989; 96: 178–180.
95.
NatansonC., HoffmanW.D., ParrilloJ.E.Septic shock and multiple organ failuire. In: ParrilloJ.E., BoneR.C., eds. Critical Care Medicine: Principles of Diagnosis and Management St. Louis, Mosby1995; 355–374.
96.
AskanaziJ., WeissmanC., LaSalaP.. Nutrition and the respiratory system.Crit Care Med1982; 10: 163–172.
97.
AskanaziJ., ElwynD.H., SilverbergP.A.. Respiratory distress secondary to a high carbohydrate load of TPN: A case report.Surgery1980; 87: 596.
98.
LarcaL., GreenbaumD.M.Effectiveness of intensive nutritional regimens in patients who fail to wean from mechanical ventilation.Crit Care Med1982; 10: 297–299.
99.
CookD.J., ReeveB.K., GuyattG.H., GriffithL.E., HeylandD.K., TrybaM.Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the critically ill resolving discordant meta-analysis.JAMA1996; 275: 308–314.