The management of respiratory failure in infancy has altered considerably over the past two decades, due both to an increasing understanding of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms involved and the development of new techniques of treatment. This paper outlines the rationale, indications, and details of the therapy which may be required in neonates and infants suffering from illnesses affecting respiratory function.
References
1.
AbbottT. R. (1968): “Complications of prolonged nasotracheal intubation in children”, Brit. J. Anaesth., 40, 347.
2.
AberdeenE. (1965): “Tracheostomy and tracheostomy care in infants”, Proc. roy. Soc. Med., 58, 900.
3.
AdamsonT. M., CollinsL. M., HawkerJ. M., ReynoldsE. O. R., and StrangL. B. (1968): “Mechanical ventilation in newborn infants with respiratory failure”, Lancet, 2, 227.
4.
AllenT. H., and StevenI. M. (1965): “Prolonged endotracheal intubation in infants and children”, Brit. J. Anaesth., 37, 566.
5.
AstrupP., JørgensenK., Siggaard AndersonO., and EngelK. (1960): “The acid-base metabolism: a new approach”, Lancet, 1, 1035.
6.
AuldP. A. M. (1971): “Oxygen therapy for premature infants”, J. Pediat., 78, 705.
7.
AveryM. E. (1968): The Lung and Its Disorders in the Newborn Infant.W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, London, Toronto, Second edition.
8.
AveryM. E., and MeadJ. (1959): “Surface properties in relation to atelectasis and hyaline membrane disease”, Amer. J. Dis. Child., 97, 517.
9.
BrandstaterB. (1962): “Prolonged intubation: an alternative to tracheostomy in infants”, Proceedings I European Congress of Anaesthesiology, Vienna, paper 106.
10.
BrandstaterB., and MuallemM. (1969): “Atelectasis following tracheal suction in infants”, Anesthesiology, 31, 468.
11.
BrecherG. A. (1956): Venous Return.Grune and Stratton, New York, London.
12.
Bush, G. H. (1964): Personal communication, cited by ReesG. J., and Owen-ThomasJ. B. (1966), “A technique of pulmonary ventilation with a nasotracheal tube”, Brit. J. Anaesth., 38, 901.
13.
CaveP., and FletcherG. (1968): “Resistance of nasotracheal tubes used in infants”, Anesthesiology, 29, 588.
14.
ChamneyA. R. (1969): “Humidification requirements and techniques”, Anaesthesia, 24, 602.
15.
ColdironJ. S. (1968): “Estimation of nasotracheal tube length in neonates”, Pediatrics, 41, 823.
16.
CoppelD. L., BennettE. J., AhlgrenE. W., and StephenC. R. (1971): “The prophylactic use of a nasotracheal tube in infants under three months of age”, Surgery, 69, 354.
17.
CumarasamyN., NüssliR., VischerD., DangelP., and DucG. (1973): “Artificial ventilation in hyaline membrane disease: The use of positive end-expiratory pressure and continuous positive airway pressure”, Pediatrics, 51, 629.
18.
DavisC. H., and StevensG. W. (1930): “Value of routine radiographic examinations of the newborn based on a study of 702 consecutive babies”, Amer. J. Obst. Gynec., 20, 73.
19.
De LeonA. S., ElliottJ. H., and JonesD. B. (1970): “The resurgence of retrolental fibroplasia”, Pediat. Clin. N. Amer., 17, 309.
20.
Delivoria-PapadopoulosM., LevisonH., and SwyerP. R. (1965): “Intermittent positive pressure respiration as a treatment in severe respiratory distress syndrome”, Arch. Dis. Childh., 40, 474.
21.
DesaiS. D., HollowayR., ThambiranA. K., and WesleyA. G. (1967): “A comparison between arterial and arterialized capillary blood in infants”, S. Afr. med. J., 41, 13.
22.
DonaldI., and LordJ. (1953): “Augmented respiration: studies in atelectasis neonatorum”, Lancet, 1, 9.
23.
DonnellyG. L., and WilsonA. (1966): “A new respiratory gas humidifier”, Med. J. Aust., 1, 720.
24.
DownesJ. J., NicodemusH. E., PierceW. S., and WaldhausenJ. A. (1970): “Acute respiratory failure in infants following cardiovascular surgery”, J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., 59, 21.
25.
DownesJ. J., WoodD. W., StrikerT. W., and HaddadC. (1968): “Acute respiratory failure in infants with bronchiolitis”, Anesthesiology, 29, 426.
26.
EatonW. L., HollowayR., and ShortL. J. M. (1967): “A multipurpose, modular respiratory monitor for intensive care units using intermittent positive-pressure respiration”, S. Afr. med. J., 41, 499.
27.
EckenhoffJ. E. (1951): “Some anatomic considerations of the infant larynx influencing endotracheal anaesthesia”, Anesthesiology, 12, 401.
28.
EngelS. (1947): The Child's Lung.Edward Arnold & Co., London.
29.
EpsteinR. A. (1971a): “Humidification during positive-pressure ventilation of infants”, Anesthesiology, 35, 532.
30.
EpsteinR. A. (1971b): “The sensitivities and response times of ventilatory assistors”, Anesthesiology, 34, 321.
31.
FearonB. (1962): “Acute laryngotrachcobronchitis in infancy and childhood”, Pediat. Clin. X. Amer.9, 1095.
32.
FearonB., MacDonaldR. E., SmithC., and MitchellD. (1966): “Airway problems in children following prolonged endotracheal intubation”, Ann. Otol. (St. Louis), 75, 975.
33.
FearonB., SmithC., Delivoria-PapadopoulosM., LevisonH., and SwyerP. R. (1964): “The idiopathic respiratory distress syndrome in the newborn: management by tracheotomy and intermittent positive pressure respiration”, Ann. Otol. (St. Louis), 73, 1082.
34.
FiskG. C., and VonwillerJ. B. (1972): “Experience using the E. & P. humidifier for pediatric patients”, Anesthesiology, 37, 568.
35.
GiffordR. R. M. (1970): “The O'Dwyer tube: development and use in laryngeal diphtheria”, Clin. Pediat. (Phila.), 9, 179.
36.
GloverW. J. (1965): “Mechanical ventilation in respiratory insufficiency in infants”, Proc. roy. Soc. Med., 58, 902.
37.
GloverW. J. (1970): “Artificial ventilation, tracheostomy and prolonged intubation in infancy”, Tracheostomy and Artificial Ventilation, ed. Feldman, and Crawley, Edward Arnold Ltd., London.
38.
GregoryG. A., KittermanJ. A., PhibbsR. H., TooleyW. H., and HamiltonW. K. (1971): “Treatment of the idiopathic respiratory-distress syndrome with continuous positive airway pressure”, New Engl. J. Med., 284, 1333.
39.
GuessW. L., and StetsonJ. B. (1968): “Tissue reactions to organotin-stabilized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) catheters”, J. Amer. med. Ass., 204, 580.
40.
GuptaJ. M., RobertonN. R. C., and WigglesworthJ. S. (1968): “Umbilical artery catheterization in the newborn”, Arch. Dis. Childh., 43, 382.
41.
HarrisonV. C., HeeseH., deV., and KleinM. (1968a): “Intracranial haemorrhage associated with hyaline membrane disease”, Arch. Dis. Childh., 43, 116.
42.
HarrisonV. C., HeeseH., deV., and KleinM. (19686): “The significance of grunting in hyaline membrane disease”, Pediatrics, 41, 549.
43.
HarrisonV. C., Heese deV.II, and KleinM. (1969): “The effects of intermittent positive pressure ventilation on lung function in hyaline membrane disease”, Brit. J. Anaesth., 41, 908.
44.
HatchD. J. (1968): “Prolonged nasotracheal intubation in infants and children”, Lancet, 1, 1272.
45.
HeeseH., deV. (1968): “Artificial ventilation in the newborn: results”, Progress in Anaesthesiology: Proceedings of the Fourth World Congress of Anaesthesiology.Exerta Medica Foundation, Amsterdam.
46.
HeeseH., deV., HarrisonV. C., KleinM., and MalanA. F. (1970): “Intermittent positive pressure ventilation in hyaline membrane disease”, J. Pediat., 76, 183.
47.
HolingerP. H., BrownW. T., and MauriziD. G. (1965): “Tracheostomy in the newborn”, Amer. J. Surg., 109, 771.
48.
HollowayR., DesaiS. D., KellyS. D., ThambiranA. K., StrydomS. E., and AdamsE. B. (1966): “The effect of chest physiotherapy on the arterial oxygenation of neonates during treatment of tetanus by intermittent positive-pressure respiration”, S. Afr. med. J., 40, 445.
49.
InksterJ. S. (1968): “Ventilators for paediatric use”, Progress in Anaesthesiology: Proceedings of the Fourth World Congress of Anaesthesiology.Excerpta Medica Foundation, Amsterdam.
50.
JacksonC. (1909): “Tracheotomy”, Tr. Amer. Laryng. Rhin. and Otol. Soc., 337.
51.
LarrocheJ. C. (1970): “Umbilical catheterization: its complications. Anatomical study”, Biol. Neonat. (Basel), 16, 101.
52.
LevisonH., and SwyerP. R. (1965): “The acid-base status in cyanotic congenital heart disease”, Canad. med. Ass. J., 92, 1127.
53.
LindholmC.-E. (1969): “Prolonged endotracheal intubation: a clinical investigation with special reference to its consequences for the larynx and trachea and to its place as an alternative to intubation through a tracheostomy”, Acta anaesth. scand., Supplement 33.
54.
LinsaoL. S., AharonA., LevisonH., and SwyerP. R. (1970): “Negative pressure artificial respiration: use in treatment of respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn”, Canad. med. Ass. J.102, 602.
55.
LlewellynM. A., and SwyerP. R. (1971): “Assisted and controlled ventilation in the newborn period: effect on oxygenation”, Brit. J. Anaesth., 43, 926.
56.
LlewellynM. A., TilakK. S., and SwyerP. R. (1970): “A controlled trial of assisted ventilation using an oro-nasal mask”, Arch. Dis. Childh., 45, 453.
57.
MarkhamW. G., BlackwoodM. J. A., and ConnA. W. (1967): “Prolonged nasotracheal intubation in infants and children”, Canad. Anaesth. Soc. J., 14, 11.
58.
MarshallJ., and SpaldingJ. M. K. (1953): “Humidification in positive-pressure respiration for bulbospinal paralysis”, Lancet, 2, 1022.
59.
ModellJ. H., MoyaF., RuizB. C., ShowersA. V., and NewbyE. J. (1968): “Blood gas and electrolyte determinations during exposure to ultrasonic nebulized aerosols”, Brit. J. Anaesth., 40, 20.
60.
MurdockA. I., LinsaoL., ReidM. McC., SuttonM. D., TilakK. S., UlanO. A., and SwyerP. R. (1970): “Mechanical ventilation in the respiratory distress syndrome: a controlled trial”, Arch. Dis. Childh., 45, 624.
61.
MushinW. W., Rendell-BakerL., ThompsonP. W., and MaplesonW. W. (1969): Automatic Ventilation of the Lungs, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford and Edinburgh, Second edition.
62.
NealW. A., ReynoldsJ. W., JarvisC. W., and WilliamsH. J. (1972): “Umbilical artery catheterization: demonstration of arterial thrombosis by aortography”, Pediatrics, 50, 6.
63.
NightingaleD. A., and RichardsC. C. (1965): “Volume-pressure relations of the respiratory system of curarized infants”, Anesthesiology, 26710.
64.
NorthwayW. H., RosanR. C., and PorterD. Y. (1967): “Pulmonary disease following respirator therapy of hyaline-membrane disease”, N. Engl. J. Med., 276, 357.
65.
O'DwyerJ. (1885): “Two cases of croup treated by tubage of the glottis”, N.Y. med. J., 42, 605.
66.
Owen-ThomasJ. B. (1967): “A follow-up of children treated by prolonged nasal intubation”, Canad. Anaesth. Soc. J., 14, 543.
67.
Owen-ThomasJ. B., UlanO. A., and SwyerP. R. (1968): “The effect of varying inspiratory gas flow rate on arterial oxygenation during I.P.P.V. in the respiratory distress syndrome”, Brit. J. Anaesth., 40, 493.
68.
PhelanP. D., WilliamsH. E., StocksJ. G., and FreemanM. (1968): “Artificial ventilation in the management of respiratory insufficiency in acute bronchiolitis”, Aust. paediat. J., 4, 223.
69.
Picton-WarlowC. G. (1970): “Ventilator therapy in the newborn: some mechanical considerations”, Arch. Dis. Childh., 45, 460.
70.
PolgarG., and KongG. P. (1965): “The nasal resistance of newborn infants”, J. Pediat., 67, 557.
71.
ReesG. J. (1968): “Artificial ventilation of the newborn: the techniques of applying artificial ventilation”, Progress in Anaesthesiology: Proceedings of the Fourth World Congress of Anaesthesiology, Excerpta Medica Foundation, Amsterdam.
72.
ReidD. H. S., TunstallM. E., and MitchellR. G. (1967): “A controlled trial of artificial respiration in the respiratory-distress syndrome of the newborn”, Lancet, 1, 532.
73.
ReynoldsR. N., and EtstenB. E. (1966): “Mechanics of respiration in apneic anesthetized infants”, Anesthesiology, 27, 13.
74.
RobertonN. R. C., GuptaJ. M., DahlenburgG. W., and TizardJ. P. M. (1968): “Oxygen therapy in the newborn”, Lancet, 1, 1323.
75.
RoweS., and AveryM. E. (1966): “Massive pulmonary hemorrhage in the newborn. II. Clinical considerations”, J. Pediat., 69, 12.
76.
SaraC. (1965): “The management of patients with a tracheostomy”, Med. J. Aust., 1, 99. Sara, C. (1967): “Histological changes in the trachea and bronchi with tracheostomy”, Med. J. Aust., 1, 1174.
77.
ScholesF. V. G. (1927): Diphtheria, Measles, Scarlatina, W. Ramsay, Melbourne, Second edition.
78.
SegalS. (1968): “Artificial ventilation in the newborn: organization of the service”, Progress in Anaesthesiology: Proceedings of the Fourth World Congress of Anaesthesiology, Excerpta Medica Foundation, Amsterdam.
79.
SilvermanW. A., SinclairJ. C., and AgateF. J.Jr.. (1966): “The oxygen cost of minor changes in heat balance of small newborn infants”, Acta paediat. scand., 55, 294.
80.
SilvermanW. A., SinclairJ. C., GandyG. M., FinsterM., BaumanW. A., and AgateF. J.Jr.. (1967): “A controlled trial of management of respiratory distress syndrome in a body-enclosing respirator: I. Evaluation of Safety”, Pediatrics, 39, 740.
81.
SmithP. C., DailyW. J. R., FletcherG., MeyerH. B. P., and TaylorG. (1969): “Mechanical ventilation of newborn infants. I. The effect of rate and pressure on arterial oxygenation of infants with respiratory distress syndrome”, Pediat. Res., 3, 244.
82.
SmithP. C., SchachE., and DailyW. J. R. (1972): “Mechanical ventilation of newborn infants: II. Effects of independent variation of rate and pressure on arterial oxygenation of infants with respiratory distress syndrome”, Anesthesiology, 37, 498.
83.
SmithR. M. (1959): Anesthesia for Infants and Children, First edition, C. V. Mosby Company, St. Louis.
84.
SmytheP. M., and BullA. (1959): “Treatment of tetanus neonatorum with intermittent positive-pressure respiration”, Brit. med. J., 2, 107.
85.
Solis-CohenL., and BruckS. (1934): “A Roentgen examination of the chest of 500 newborn infants for pathology other than enlarged thymus”, Radiology, 23, 173.
86.
SpaldingJ. M. K., and Crampton SmithA. (1963): Clinical Practice and Physiology of Artificial Respiration, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
87.
SpenceM., and MelvilleA. W. (1972): “A new humidifier”, Anesthesiology, 36, 89.
88.
StahlmanM. T. (1968): “Artificial ventilation of the newborn. Discussion”, Progress in Anaesthesiology: Proceedings of the Fourth World Congress of Anaesthesiology, p. 119, Excerpta Medica Foundation, Amsterdam.
89.
StahlmanM. T. (1970): “Long term results of respirator therapy”, Biol. Neonat. (Basel), 16, 133.
90.
StahlmanM. T., MalanA. F., ShepardF. M., BlankenshipW. J., YoungW. C., and GrayJ. (1970): “Negative pressure assisted ventilation in infants with hyaline membrane disease”, J. Pediat., 76, 174.
91.
van StekelenburgG. J. (1969): “Managing oxygen therapy”, Lancet, 1, 312.
92.
SternL. (1970): “Description and utilization of the negative pressure apparatus”, Biol. Neonat. (Basel), 16, 24.
93.
SternL., RamosA. D., OuterbridgeE. W., and BeaudryP. H. (1970): “Negative pressure artificial respiration: use in treatment of respiratory failure of the newborn”, Canad. med. Ass. J., 102, 595.
94.
StocksJ. G. (1966): “Prolonged intubation and subglottic stenosis”, Brit. med. J., 2, 1199.
95.
StocksJ. G. (1968): “Prolonged endotracheal intubation in paediatric intensive care”, Progress in Anaesthesiology: Proceedings of the Fourth World Congress of Anaesthesiology, Excerpta Medica Foundation, Amsterdam.
96.
StocksJ. G. (1969): “The accidentally disconnected respirator: a warning device”, Proceedings of the 28th Annual Meeting, Australian Society of Anaesthetists, p. 63.
97.
StocksJ. G. (1972): “Management of respiratory failure—type of tube”, Proceedings of the Fifth World Congress of Anaesthesiology (in the press).
98.
StrikerT. W., StoolS., and DownesJ. J. (1967): “Prolonged nasotracheal intubation in infants and children”, Arch. Otolaryng., 85, 210.
99.
SwyerP. R. (1970): “Long term results of respirator therapy. Discussion”, Biol. Neonat. (Basel), 16, 141.
100.
SwyerP. R. (1971a): “Clinical features and management of the seriously ill newborn”, Care of the Critically Ill Child, ed. Jones, and Owen-Thomas, Edward Arnold, London.
101.
SwyerP. R. (1971b): “Special physiological and physiopathological considerations relevant to intensive care of the newborn”, Care of the Critically Ill Child, ed. Jones, and Owen-Thomas, Edward Arnold, London.
102.
ThibeaultD. W., ClutarioB., and AuldP. A. M. (1966): “Arterial oxygen tension in premature infants”, J. Pediat., 69, 449.
103.
ThomasD. V., FletcherG., SunshineP., SchaferI. A., and KlausM. I.I. (1965): “Prolonged respirator use in pulmonary insufficiency of newborn”, J. Amer. med. Ass., 193, 183.
104.
TunstallM. E., CaterJ. I., ThomsonJ. S., and MitchellR. G. (1968): “Ventilating the lungs of newborn infants for prolonged periods”, Arch. Dis. Childh., 43, 486.
105.
UsherR. (1963): “Reduction of mortality of respiratory distress syndrome of prematurity with early administration of intravenous glucose and sodium bicarbonate”, Pediatrics, 32, 966.
106.
UsherR. H. (1970): “The role of the neonatologist”, Pediat. Clin. N. Amer., 17, 199.
107.
WarleyM. A., and GairdnerD. (1962): “Respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn—principles in treatment”, Arch. Dis. Childh., 37, 455.
108.
WiggerH. J., BransilverB. R., and BlancW. A. (1970): “Thromboses due to catheterization in infants and children”, J. Pediat., 76, 1.
109.
WinquistR. A., and StammS. J. (1970): “Arterialized capillary sampling using histamine iontophoresis”, J. Pediat., 76, 455.
110.
WinterP. M., and SmithG. (1972): “The toxicity of oxygen”, Anesthesiology, 37, 210.
111.
WolfsdorfJ., SwiftD. L., and AveryM. E. (1969): “Mist therapy reconsidered; an evaluation of the respiratory deposition of labelled water aerosols produced by jet and ultrasonic nebulizers”, Pediatrics, 43, 799.
112.
WrightR., SykesM. K., JacksonB. G., MannN. M., and AdamsE. B. (1961): “Intermittent positive-pressure respiration in tetanus neonatorum”, Lancet, 2, 678.
113.
ZeltB. A., and LoSassoA. M. (1972): “Prolonged nasotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation in the management of asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy: a case report”, Anesth. Analg. Curr. Res., 51, 342.
