Problem-based learning arose out of educational initiatives in the 1960s and is often one of the most contentious issues within medical education. McMaster University in Canada was the first to implement problem-based learning on a large scale within medicine and this was soon followed by universities in Europe and Australia. In modern times, few western medical schools do not include at least some aspect of problem-based learning within their instructional itinerary, and many build their entire curriculum and instructional procedures around problem-based learning. This article provides an overview of problem-based learning within medical education, pertinent background, describes the characteristics of problem-based learning, its advantages and disadvantages, problem-based learning scenarios and facilitation.
FoordM.inductive versus deductive methods of teaching area by programmed instruction.Educational Rev1964; 16: 130–136.
2.
GagneR.M., BrownL.T.Some factors in the programming of conceptual learning.Exp Psychol1975; 66: 325–331.
3.
MarkleS.M.Good frames and bad: a grammar of frame writing.John Wiley and Sons, New York1964.
4.
BarrowsH.S., TamblynR.M.An evaluation of problem-based learning in small groups utilising a simulated patient.J Med Edu1976; 51: 52–54.
5.
BarrowsH.S.How to design a problem-based curriculum for pre-clinical years.Springer, New York1985.
6.
NeufeldV.R., BarrowsH.S.The “McMaster philosophy”: an approach to medical education.J Med Edu1974; 49: 1040–1050.
7.
BarrowsH.S.Problem-based learning applied to medical education.Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield Illinois 2000.
8.
DavisM.H., HardenR.M.AMEE medical education guide no. 15: problem-based learning: a practical guide.Medical Teacher1999; 21: 130–140.
9.
CharlinB., MannK., HansenP.The many faces of problem-based learning: a framework for understanding and comparison.Medical Teacher1998; 20: 323–330.
10.
WaltonH.J., MatthewsM.B.Essentials of problem-based learning.Medical Education1989; 23: 539–558.
11.
SchmidtH.G., Machiels-BongaertsM., HermansH., tenCateT.J., VenekampR., BoshuizenH.P.The development of diagnostic competence: comparison of a problem-based, an integrated, and a conventional medical curriculum.Acad Med1996; 71: 658–664.
12.
ShinJ.H., HaynesR.N., JohnstonM.E.Effect of problem-based, self-directed undergraduate education on life-long learning.Can Med Edu J1993; 148: 969–976.
13.
WestbergJ., JasonH.Collaborative clinical education: the foundation of effective health care.Springer, New York1993.
14.
Nieuwenhuijzen-KrusemanA.C., KolleL.F., ScherpbierA.J.Problem-based learning at Maastricht: an assessment of cost and outcome.Education for Health1997; 10: 179–187.
15.
SeftonA.J.From a traditional to a problem-based curriculum: estimating staff time and resources.Education for Health1997; 10: 165–178.
16.
AlbaneseM.A., MitchellS.Problem-bases learning: a review of literature on its outcomes and implementation issues.Acad Med1993; 68: 52–81.
17.
BerksonL.Problem-based learning: have the expectations been met?Acad Med1993; 68: S79–S88.
18.
VeronD.T., BlakeR.L.Does problem-based learning work? A meta-analysis of evaluative research.Acad Med1993; 68: 550–563.
19.
HardenR.M., DavisM.H.The continuum of problem-based learning.Medical Teacher1998; 20: 317–322.
20.
BordageG., LemieuxM.Semantic structures and diagnostic thinking of experts and novices.Acad Med1991; 66: S70–S72.
21.
MargetsonD.What counts as problem-based learning?Education for Health1998; 11: 193–201.
22.
DolmansD., Snellen-BalendongH., WolfhagenI., van der VleutenC.Seven principles of effective case design for a problem-based curriculum.Medical Teacher1997; 19: 185–189.
23.
MacDonaldP.J.Selection of health problems for a problem-based curriculum. In BoudD, and FelettiG.The challenge of problem-based learning.Kogan Page, London1991.
24.
SchmidtH.G., MoustJ.H.What makes a tutor effective? A structural-equations modelling approach to learning in problem based curricula.Acad Med1995; 70: 708–714.
25.
DavisW.K., NairnR., PaineM.E., AndersonR.M., OhM.S.Effects of expert and non-expert facilitators on the small group process and on student performance.Acad Med1992; 67: 470–474.
26.
SchmidtH.G.Resolving inconsistencies in tutor expertise research: does lack of structure cause students to seek tutor guidance?Acad Med1994; 69: 656–662.
27.
BarrowsH.S.The tutorial process.Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield Illinois1988.
28.
IrbyD.M.Models of faculty development for problem-based learning.Advances in Health Sciences Education1996; 1: 69–81.
