Storms on wind-energy turbine systems: A multi-dimensional architecture for storm-resilient onshore,offshore,and floating wind fleets

Abstract

This study develops a storm-focused framework for wind-energy turbine systems. It synthesises 102 peer-reviewed studies published between 2005 and 2025 across onshore, fixed-bottom offshore, floating offshore, and system-level contexts. A reproducible bibliographic and coding database was created to classify each study by storm type, siting environment, turbine or system technology, research method, hazard dimensionality, temporal horizon, data source, scale of analysis, and system boundary. Reproducibility therefore refers to the transparent search, screening, coding, and matrix-construction protocol, while full replication of several primary studies remains constrained by proprietary SCADA records, restricted metocean observations, confidential turbine-load data, and incomplete access to simulation setups. The resulting interaction matrices reveal three major findings. First, 57 of 102 studies treat storms implicitly through generic extreme-load or enabling frameworks, rather than through explicit storm-regime characterisation. Second, the evidence base remains concentrated around land-based horizontal-axis turbines and fixed-bottom offshore systems, while floating offshore wind accounts for only 12 of 102 studies, despite its high exposure to typhoon, hurricane, wave, and mooring-coupled risks. Third, the geographical evidence base is dominated by China, the United States, and Northwest Europe, whereas cyclone-exposed developing regions and emerging offshore corridors remain weakly represented. The synthesis further identifies a five-stage evolution from foundational storm-survivability studies to probabilistic, digital-twin, multi-physics, and resilience-oriented paradigms. These paradigms increasingly connect aero-hydro-servo-elastic modelling, metocean databases, field campaigns, and data-driven forecasting. The proposed storms-on-wind-systems architecture provides a unified basis for storm-explicit structural design, siting atlases, digital monitoring, grid-resilience modelling, and investment planning. It also prioritises future research on floating technologies, compound multi-hazard characterisation, multi-farm interactions, and cross-sector resilience under accelerating extreme-weather risk.