This article assesses the potentially powerful combination of remotely sensed data and soil-vegetation-atmosphere transfer (SVAT) schemes. SVATS represent the hydrological processes occurring at the land surface and can be used to estimate, among other processes, the exchange of water and energy between the soil, vegetation and the atmosphere. They require information about the interaction of radiation with the soil and vegetation. Bidirectional reflectance models are now starting to be used to determine the partitioning of radiation. An example of the combination of a simple geometric optics model of bidirectional reflectance and computer graphics is given, where simulations of remotely sensed scenes are produced. The next step is to couple these models to a SVAT scheme. The output of a SVAT scheme can also be used to drive radiative transfer models at different wavebands. This approach is illustrated by the estimation of soil hydraulic properties using a time series of passive microwave emission observations.
Ahmad, S.P. and Deering, D.W.1992: A simple analytical function for bidirectional reflectance . Journal of Geophysical Research97, 18867-86.
2.
Asrar, G., Myeni, R.B. and Choudhury, B.J.1991: A three dimensional radiative transfer method for optical remote sensing of vegetated land surfaces. In Proceedings of the 5th international colloquium - physical measurements and signatures in remote sensing Courchevel, France, 14-18 January (ESA SP310, May 1991), 361-67.
3.
Avissar, R. and Verstraete, M.M.1990: The representation of continental surface processes in atmospheric models, Review of Geophysics28, 35-52.
4.
Barker-Schaaf, C., Li, X. and Strahler, A.H.1994: Topographic effects on bidirectional and hemispherical reflectances calculated with a geometric-optical canopy model. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing GE-32, 1186-93.
5.
Barker-Schaaf, C. and Strahler, A.H.1994: Validation of bidirectional and hemispherical reflectances from a geometric-optical model using ASAS imagery and pyranometer measurements of a spruce forest. Remote Sensing of Environment49, 138-44.
6.
Bamsley, M.J. and Muller, J.P.1991: Measurement simulation and analysis of the directional properties of earth surface materials. In Proceedings of the 5th international colloquium - physical measurements and signatures in remote sensing. Courchevel, France, 14-18 January (ESA SP-319, May 1991), 375-82.
7.
Barnsley, M.J., Strahler, A.H., Morris, K.P. and Muller, J.-P.1993: Sampling of the surface bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF). 1. Evaluation of current and future satellite sensors. Remote Sensing Reviews8, 271-311.
8.
Beven, K.1979: A sensitivity analysis of the Penman-Monteith actual evapotranspiration estimates. Journal of Hydrology44, 169-90.
9.
Blanchard, B.J. and O'Neill, P.E.1983: Estimation of the hydraulic character of soils with passive microwave systems. In Proceedings of the national conference on advances in infiltration, ASAE, Chicago, December, 215-25.
10.
Burke, E.J., Gurney, R.J., Simmonds, L.P. and Jackson, T.J.1997: Using a modelling approach to predict soil hydraulic properties from passive microwave measurements. Water Resources Research , in press.
11.
Burke, W.J., Schmugge, T.J. and Paris, J.F.1979: Comparison of 2.8 and 21 cm microwave radiometer observations over soils with emission model calculations. Journal of Geophysical Research84, 287-94.
12.
Camillo, P.J.1987: A canopy reflectance model based on an analytical solution to the multiple scattering equation. Remote Sensing of Environment23, 453-77.
13.
Camillo, P.J. and Gurney, R.J.1984: A sensitivity analysis of a numerical model for estimating evapotranspiration. WaterResources Research20, 105-112.
14.
Camillo, P.J., O'Neill, P.E. and Gurney, R.J.1986: Estimating soil hydraulic parameters using passive microwave data. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE24, 930-36.
15.
Campbell, G.S.1979: A simple method for determining unsaturated conductivity from moisture retention data. Soil Science117, 311-14.
16.
Chandrasekhar, S.1960: Radiative transfer. New York : Dover.
17.
Charles-Edwards, D.A. and Thomley, J.H.M.1973: Light interception by an isolated plant: a simple model . Annals of Botany37, 919-28.
18.
Charles-Edwards, D.A. and Thorpe, M.R.1976: Interception of diffuse and direct beam radiation by a hedgerow apple orchard. Annals of Botany40, 603-13.
19.
Chauhan, N.S., Le Vine, D.M. and Lang, R.H.1994: Discrete scatter model for microwave radar and radiometer response to corn: comparison of theory and data. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE32, 416-26.
20.
Choudhury, B.J., Schmugge, T.J., Chang, A. and Newton, R.W.1979: Effect of surface roughness on the microwave emissivity from soils. Journal of Geophysical Research84, 5699-706.
21.
Colton, A.L.1996: Effective thermal parameters for a heterogeneous land-surface . Remote Sensing of Environment57, 143-60.
22.
Daamen, C.C. and Simmonds, L.P.1995: Soil Water Energy and Transpiration (SWEAT): a numerical model of water and energy fluxes in soil profiles and sparse canopies, Reading: Department of Soil Science, University of Reading .
23.
— 1996: Measurement of evaporation from bare soil and its estimation using surface-resistance. Water Resources Research32, 1393-402.
24.
De Reffye, P., Edelin, C., Françon, J., Jaeger, M. and Puech, C.1988: Plant models faithful to botanical structure and development . Computer Graphics22, 151-58.
25.
Dobson, M.C. and Ulaby, F.T.1986: Active microwave soil-moisture research. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE24, 23-36.
26.
Dobson, M.C., Ulaby, F.T., Hallikainen, M.T. and El Rayes, M.A.1985: Microwave dielectric behaviour of wet soil. 2. Dielectric mixing models, IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE-23, 35-46.
27.
Eagleman, J.R. and Lin, W.C.1976: Remote sensing of soil moisture by a 21 cm passive microwave radiometer. Journal of Geophysical Research81, 3660-66.
28.
Engman, E.T. and Gurney, R.J.1991: Remote sensing in hydrology. London : Chapman & Hall.
29.
Franklin, J. and Turner, D.L.1992: The application of a geometric optical canopy reflectance model to semiarid shrub vegetation. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing30, 292-301.
30.
Goel, N.S. and Grier, T.1988: Estimation of canopy parameters for inhomogeneous vegetation canopies from reflectance data. III. TRIM: A model for radiative transfer in heterogeneous three-dimensional canopies. Remote Sensing of Environment25, 255-93.
31.
Goel, N.S., Rozehnal, I. and Thompson, R.L.1991: A computer graphics based model for scattering from objects of arbitrary shapes in the optical region. Remote Sensing of Environment36, 73-104.
32.
Hapke, B.1981: Bidirectional reflectance spectroscopy. 1. Theory . Journal of Geophysical Research86, 3039-54.
33.
— 1986: Bidirectional reflectance spectroscopy. 4. The extinction coefficient and the opposition effect. Icarus, 67, 264-80.
34.
Henderson-Sellers, A., Pitman, A.J., Love, P.K., Irannejad, P. and Chen, T.H.1995: The Project for Intercomparison of Landsurface Parameterization Schemes (PILPS): phases 2 & 3. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society76, 489-503.
35.
Henderson-Sellers, A., Yang, Z.L. and Dickinson, R.E.1993: The Project for Intercomparison of Landsurface Parameterization Schemes. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society74, 1335-49.
36.
Hollenbeck, K.J., Schmugge, T.J., Hornberger, G.M. and Wang, J.R.1996: Identifying soil hydraulic heterogeneity by detection of relative change in passive microwave remote sensing observations. WaterResources Research32, 132-48.
37.
laquinta, J. and Pinty, B.1994: Adaptation of a bidirectional reflectance model including the hot-spot to an optically thin canopy. In Proceedings of the sixth international colloquium on physical measurements and signatures in remote sensing Val d'Isère, France, 17-21 January.
38.
Jackson, T.J., Engman, E.T., Le Vine, D.M., Schmugge, T.J., Lang, R., Wood, E.F. and Teng, W.1994: Multitemporal passive microwave mapping in MACHYDRO-90 . IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE32, 203-206.
39.
Jackson, T.J., Hawley, M.E. and O'Neill, P.E.1987: Replanting soil moisture using passive microwave sensors . Water Resources Bulletin23, 11-19.
40.
Jackson, T.J., Le Vine, D.M., Griffis, A.J., Goodrich, D.C., Schmugge, T.J., Swift, C.T. and O'Neill, P.E.1993: Soil moisture and rainfall estimation over a semi-arid environment with the ESTAR microwave radiometer. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE31, 836-40.
41.
Jackson, T.J., Le Vine, D.M., Swift, C.T., Schmugge, T.J. and Schiebe, F.R.1995: Large area mapping of soil moisture using the ESTAR passive microwave radiometer in Washita'92. Remote Sensing of Environment53, 27-37.
42.
Jackson, T.J. and O'Neill, P.E.1990: Attenuation of soil microwave emission by corn and soybeans at 1.4 and 5 GHz. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE28, 978-80.
43.
Jackson, T.J. and Schmugge, T.J.1991: Vegetation effects on the microwave emission of soils . Remote Sensing of Environment36, 203-12.
44.
Jupp, D.L.B., Walker, J. and Penridge, L.K.1986: Interpretation of vegetation structure in Landsat MSS imagery: a case study in disturbed semi-arid eucalypt woodlands. Part 2. Model-based analysis. Journal of EnvironmentalManagement23, 35-57.
45.
Kerr, Y.H. and Njoku, E.G.1990: A semi-empirical model for interpreting microwave emission from semiarid land surfaces as seen from space. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE-28284-93.
46.
Kerr, Y.H. and Wigneron, J.-P.1994: Vegetation models and observations - a review. In Choudhury, B.J., Kerr, Y.H., Njoku, E.G. and Pampaloni, P., editors, Passive microwave remote sensing research related to land-atmosphere interactions, Utrecht: VSP, 317-44.
47.
Lewis, P. and Barnsley, M.J.1994: Influence of the sky radiance distribution on various formulations of the Earth surface albedo, Proceedings, Spectral Signatures in Remote Sensing, Val d'Isere, France, 17-21 January 1994, 707-15.
48.
Lewis, P. and Muller, J.-P.1990: Botanical plant modeling for remote sensing simulation studies. In Proceedings, IGARSS '90, Washington, DC, 21-24 May, 1739-42.
49.
Li, X. and Strahler, A.H.1985: Geometric-optical modelling of a conifer forest canopy . IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE-23, 705-21.
50.
— 1986: Geometric-optical bidirectional reflectance modelling of a conifer forest canopy. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE-24, 906-19.
51.
- 1992: Geometric optical modelling of the discrete crown vegetation canopy: effect of crown shape and mutual shadowing. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing30, 276-92.
52.
Mattikalli, N.M., Engman, E.T., Ahuja, L.R. and Jackson, T.J.1995: Estimating soil properties from microwave measurements of soil moisture. In Engman, E.T., Guyot, G. and Marino, C.M. , editors, Remote sensing for agriculture, forestry and natural resources, ProceedingsSPIE2585, 89-101.
53.
Mo, T., Schmugge, T.J. and Wang, J.R.1987: Calculation of the microwave brightness temperature of rough soil surfaces, bare field. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE-2547-54.
54.
Myeni, R.B., Asrar, G., Bumett, R.B. and Kanemasu, E.T.1987: Radiative transfer in an anisotropically scattering vegetation medium. Agriculture and ForestMeteorology41, 97-127.
55.
Nicodemus, F.E., Richmond, J.C., Hsia, J.J., Ginsberg, I.W. and Limperis, T.1977: Geometrical considerations and nomenclature for reflectance. NBS Monograph. 160. Washington, DC: National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce.
56.
Nilson, T. and Kuusk, A.1989: A reflectance model for the homogeneous plant canopy and its inversion. Remote Sensing of Environment27, 157-67.
57.
Nilson, T. and Peterson, U.1991: A forest canopy reflectance model and a test case . Remote Sensing of Environment37, 131-42.
58.
Njoku, E.G. and Kong, J.A.1977: Theory for passive microwave remote sensing of near-surface soil moisture. Journal of Geophysical Research82, 3108-18.
59.
Norman, J.M. and Welles, J.M.1983: Radiative transfer in an array of canopies. Agronomy Journal75, 481-88.
60.
North, P.R.J.1996: Three-dimensional forest light interaction model using a Monte Carlo method. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing34, 946-56.
61.
Paloscia, S., Pampaloni, P., Chiarantini, L., Coppo, P., Gagliani, S. and Luzi, G.1993: Multifrequency passive microwave remote-sensing of soil-moisture and roughness. International Journal of Remote Sensing14, 467-83.
62.
Philip, J.R. and de Vries, D.A.1957: Moisture movement in porous materials under temperature gradients. EOS Transactions ofAmerican Geophysical Union38, 222-32.
63.
Pinty, B., Verstraete, M.M. and Dickinson, R.E.1990: A physical model of the bidirectional reflectance of vegetation canopies. 2. Inversion and validation. Journal of Geophysical Research95(D8), 11767-75.
64.
Pitman, A.J., Henderson-Sellers, A., Abramopoulos, F., Avissar, R., Bonan, G., Boone, A., Cogley, J.G., Dickinson, R.E., Ek, M., Entekhabi, D., Famiglietti, J., Garratt, J.R., Frech, M., Hahmann, A., Koster, R., Kowalczyk, E., Laval, K., Lean, L., Lee, T.J., Lettenmaier, D., Liang, X., Mahfouf, J.-F., Mahrt, L., Milly, C., Mitchell, K., de Noblet, N., Noilhan, J., Pan, H., Pielke, R., Robock, A., Rosenzweig, C., Running, S.W., Schlosser, A., Scott, R., Suarez, M., Thompson, S., Verseghy, D., Wetzel, P., Wood, E., Xue, Y., Yang, Z.-L. and Zhang, L.1993: Results from the off-line control simulation phase of the Project for Intercomparison of Landsurface Parameterisation Schemes (PILPS) . GEWEX Technical Note, Washington, DC: IGPO Publication Series, 7.
65.
Prince, S.D., Kerr, Y.H., Gourtorbe, J.-P., Lebel, T., Tinga, A., Brouwer, J., Dolman, A.J., Engman, E.T., Gash, J.H.C., Hoepffner, M., Kabat, P., Monteny, B., Said, F., Sellers, P. and Wallace, J.1995: Geographical, biological and remove sensing aspects of the Hydrologic Atmospheric Pilot Experiment in the Sahel (HAPEX SAHEL) . Remote Sensing of Environment51, 215-34.
66.
Ross, J. and Marshak, A.L.1984: Calculation of the canopy bidirectional reflectance using the Monte-Carlo method. Remote Sensing of Environment24, 213-25.
67.
Rowntree, P.R. and Bolton, J.A.1983: Simulation of the atmospheric response to soil-moisture anomalies over Europe. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society109, 501-26.
68.
Schmugge, T.J. and Choudhury, B.J.1981: A comparison of radiative transfer models for predicting the microwave emission from soils. RadioScience16, 927-38.
69.
Schmugge, T.J., O'Neill, P.E. and Wang, J.R.1986: Passive soil moisture research. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE24, 12-22.
70.
Sellers, P.J., Mintz, Y., Sud, Y.C. and Dalcher, A.1986: A simple biosphere model (SIB) for use within general-circulation models. Journal of Atmospheric Science43, 505-31.
71.
Shuttleworth, W.J.1991: The Modellion concept. Review ofGeophysics29, 585-606.
72.
Shuttleworth, W.J. and Wallace, J.S.1985: Evaporation from sparse crops - an energy combination theory. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society111, 839-55.
73.
Strahler, A.H. and Jupp, D.L.B.1990: Modelling bidirectional reflectance of forests and woodlands using Boolean models and geometric optics. Remote Sensing of Environment34, 153-66.
74.
Tietje, O. and Tapkenhinrichs, M.1993: Evaluation of pedo-transfer functions. Journal of the Soil Science Society ofAmerica57, 1088-95.
75.
Ulaby, F.T., Moore, R.K. and Fung, A.K.1986: Microwave remote sensing - active and passive. Reading MA: Addison-Wesley.
76.
van Genuchten, M.Th. and Leij, F.J.1992: On estimating the hydraulic properties of unsaturated soils. In van Genuchten, M.Th., Leij, F.J. and Lund, L.J. , editors, Indirect methods for estimating the hydraulic properties of unsaturated soils. Proceedings of the international workshop on indirect methods for estimating hydraulic properties of unsaturated soils, Riverside, CA, 11-13 October 1989, 1-14.
77.
Verstraete, M.M., Pinty, B. and Dickinson, R.E.1990: A physical model of the bidirectional reflectance of vegetation canopies. 1. Theory. Journal of Geophysical Research95(D8) 11755-65.
78.
Wang, J.R.1987: Microwave emission from smooth bare fields and soil moisture sampling depth. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE25, 616-22.
79.
Wang, J.R. and Schmugge, T.J.1980: An empirical model for the complex dielectric permittivity of soils as a function of water content. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE18, 288-95.
80.
Wang, J.R., Shiue, J.C., Schmugge, T.J. and Engman, E.T.1990: the L-band PBMR measurements of surface soil moisture in FIFE. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote SensingGE28, 906-13.
81.
Wigneron, J.-P., Kerr, T.H., Chanzy, A. and Jin, Y.Q.1993: Inversion of surface parameters from passive microwave measurements over a soybean field. Remote Sensing of Environment46, 61-72.
82.
Wilheit, T.T.1978: Radiative transfer in a plane stratified dielectric . IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Electronics16, 138-43.
