The urban energy balance

Abstract

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ackerman, T.P. 1977: A model of the effect of aerosols on urban climates with particular applications to the Los Angeles basin. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 34, 531-47.

Aida, M. 1982a: On the urban surface albedo. 1981 Japanese Progress in Climatology 4-5.

1982b: Urban albedo as a function of the urban structure - a model experiment. Boundary Layer Meteororology 23, 405-14.

Aida, M. and Gotoh, K. 1982: Urban albedo as a function of the urban structure - a two-dimensional numerical simulation. Boundary Layer Meteorology 23, 415-24.

Aida, M. and Yaji, M. 1979: Observations of atmospheric downward radiation in the Tokyo area. Boundary Layer Meteorology 16, 453-65.

Arnfield, A.J. 1982: An approach to the estimation of the surface radiative properties and radiation budgets of cities. Physical Geography 3, 97-122.

Artis, D.A. and Carnahan, W.H. 1982: Survey of emissivity variability in thermography of urban areas. Remote Sensing of Environment 12, 313-29.

Atwater, M.A. 1972: Thermal effects of urbanization and industrialization in the boundary layer: a numerical study, Boundary-Layer Meteorology 3, 229-45.

Barry, R.G. and Chambers, R.E. 1966: A preliminary map of summer albedo over England and Wales. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 92, 543-48.

10.

Bergstrom, R.W. Jr and Viskanta, R. 1973: Modelling of the effects of gaseous and particulate pollutants in the urban atmosphere, Part I: Thermal structure. Journal of Applied Meteorology 12, 901-12.

11.

Berlyand, M.Ye. , Kondratyev, K.Ya. , Zhvalev, V.V. and Zrazhevskiy, I.M. 1974: Tasks and program of the CAENEX-72 experiment. Trudy, Glavnia Geofizicheskaya Observatoriya 332, 2-9.

12.

Bornstein, R.D. 1986: Urban climate models: nature limitations and applications . In Oke, T.R. , editor, Urban climatology and its applications with special regard to tropical areas, WMO 652. World Meteorological Organization, 237-67.

13.

Bowling, S.A. and Benson, C.S. 1978: Study of the subarctic heat island at Fairbanks, Alaska . Environmental Monitor Report No. EPA-600/4-78-027, US EPA Research, Triangle Pk, NC.

14.

Bowne, N.E. and Ball, J.T. 1970: Observational comparison of rural and urban boundary layer turbulence. Journal of Applied Meteorology 9, 862-73.

15.

Carlson, T.N. and Boland, F.E. 1978: Analysis of urban-rural canopy using a surface heat flux/temperature model. Journal of Applied Meteorology 17, 998-1013.

16.

Carlson, T.N. , Dodd, J.K. , Benjamin, S.G. and Cooper, J.N. 1981: Satellite estimation of the surface energy balance, moisture availability and thermal inertia. Journal of Applied Meteorology 20, 67-87.

17.

Ching, J.K.S. 1985: Urban-scale variations of turbulence parameters and fluxes . Boundary Layer Meteorology 33, 335-61.

18.

Ching, J.K.S. , Clarke, J.F. and Godowitch, J.M. 1983: Modulation of heat flux by different scales of advection in an urban environment, Boundary Layer Meteorology 25, 171-91.

19.

Chow, S.D. and Chao, C. 1981: On some features of the Shanghai urban climate . Paper presented to IAMAP Symposium, Hamburg , West Germany.

20.

Clarke, J.F. , Ching, J.K.S. and Godowitch, J.M. 1982: An experimental study of turbulence in an urban environment. NTIS PB 226085, ESRL, US Environmental Protection Agency , Research Triangle Pk NC.

21.

Cleugh, H. and Oke, T.R. 1985: Suburban-rural energy balance comparisons in summer for Vancouver BC. Boundary Layer Meteorology 36, 351-69.

22.

Coppin, P.A. 1979: Turbulent fluxes over a uniform urban surface. Flinders University, unpublished thesis.

23.

Coppin, P. , Forgan, B. , Penney, C. and Schwerdtfeger, P. 1978: Zonal characteristics of urban albedos. Urban Ecology 3, 365-69.

24.

Counihan, J. 1975: Adiabatic atmospheric boundary layers: a review and analysis of data from the period 1880-1972. Atmospheric Environment 9, 871-905.

25.

Dabberdt, W.F. and Davis, P.A. 1978: Determination of energetic characteristics of urban-rural surfaces in the Greater St Louis area. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 14, 105-21.

26.

Denezhkina, L.A. , Zhvalev, V.F. Prokofev, M.A. , Prokof'ev, L.I. and TerMarkaryants, N. 1974: Results of actinometric observations in a free atmosphere in the CAENEX-72 Expedition. Trudy, Glavnia Geofizcheskaya Observatoriya. 332, 40-61.

27.

Doll, D.C. , Ching, J.K.S. , and Kaneshiro, J. 1985: Parameterization of subsurface heating for soil and concrete usng net radiation data. Boundary Layer Meteorology 32, 351-72.

28.

Eaton, F.D. and Dirks, R.A. Turbulent flux measurements in the urban-rural atmosphere of greater St Louis . Preprints, Sixth Conference on Planned Inadvertent Weather Modification. Boston: American Meteorological Society 17-20.

29.

Estournel, C. , Vehil, R. , Guedalia, D. , Fontan, J. and Druilhet, A. 1983: Observations and modelling of downward radiative fluxes (solar and infrared) in urban/ rural areas. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology 22, 134-42.

30.

Foster, J.L. , Ormsby, J.P. and Gurney, R.J. 1981: Satellite observations of England and northwestern Europe . Weather 36, 252-59.

31.

Garratt, J.R. 1980: Surface influence upon vertical profiles in the atmospheric near-surface layer. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 106, 803-20.

32.

Goward, S.N. 1981: Thermal behavior of urban landscapes and the urban heat island. Physical Geography 2, 19-33.

33.

Grimmond, C.S.B. and Oke, T.R. 1986: Urban water balance 2: Results from a suburb of Vancouver, British Columbia. Water Resources Research 22, 1404-12.

34.

Hay, J.E. 1984: An assessment of the mesoscale variability of solar radiation at the Earths surface. Solar Energy 32, 425-34.

35.

Harrison, R. , McGoldrick, B. and Williams, C.G.B. 1984: Artificial heat release from Greater London, 1971-1976. Atmospheric Environment 18, 2291-304.

36.

Hess, M. et al. 1978: Opracowanie bilansu radiacyjnego miasta Krakowa i terenow pozamiejskich. Instit. Geografii Uniwersytetu Jagiellon-skiego 90, Krakow, unpublished paper.

37.

Hildebrand, P.H. and Ackerman, B. 1984: Urban effects on the convective boundary layer. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 41, 76-91.

38.

Kalanda, B.D. , Oke, T.R. and Spittlehouse, D.L. 1980: Suburban energy balance estimates for Vancouver BC using the Bowen ratio - energy balance approach . Journal of Applied Meteorology 19, 791-802.

39.

Kalma, J.D. 1974: An advective boundary-layer model applied to Sydney, Australia . Boundary Layer Meteorology 6, 351-61.

40.

Kalma, J.D. and Newcombe, K.J. 1976: Energy use in two large cities: a comparison of Hong Kong and Sydney, Australia. Environmental Studies 9, 53-64.

41.

Kerschgens, M.J. and Drauschke, R.L. 1986: On the energy budget of a wintry midlatitude city atmosphere . Beiträge zur Physik der Atmosphäre 59, 115-25.

42.

Kerschgens, M.J. and Hacker, J.M. 1985: The energy budget of the convective boundary layer over an urban and rural environment. Beiträge zur Physik der Atmosphäre 58, 171-85.

43.

Kidder, S.Q. and Wu, H.-T. 1987: A multispectral study of the St Louis area under snow-covered conditions using NOAA-7 AVHRR data. Remote Sensing of Environment 22, 159-72.

44.

Kung, E.C. , Bryson, R.A. and Lenschow, D.H. 1964: Study of a continental surface albedo on the basis of flight measurements and structure of the Earth's surface cover over North America. Monthly Weather Review 92, 543-64.

45.

Kondratyev, K.Ya. , Lominadze, V.P. , Vasil'ev, O.B. , Grishechkin, V.S. , Ivlev, L.S. , Gavasheli, Sh.G. , Zhvalev, V.F. and Sikharulidze, V.Ya. 1976: A coordinated study of the radiation and meteorological regimes of Rustavi (CAENEX-72). Soviet Meteorologiya i Gidrologiya 3, 1-9.

46.

Landsberg, H.E. 1970: Manmade climatic changes. Science 170, 1265-74.

47.

Mayer, H. and Noack, E.-M. 1980: Einfluss der Schneedecke auf die Strahlungsbilanz im Grossraum Munchen. Meteorologische Rundschau 33, 65-74.

48.

McElroy, J.L. 1973: A numerical study of the nocturnal heat island over a medium-sized mid-latitude city (Columbus, Ohio). Boundary Layer Meteorology 3, 442-53.

49.

Melling, H. and List, R. 1980: Characteristics of vertical velocity fluctuations in a convective urban boundary layer, Journal of Applied Meteorology 19, 1184-95.

50.

Method, T. and Carlson, T.N. 1982: Radiative heating rates and some optical properties of the St Louis aerosol, as inferred from aircraft measurements. Atmospheric Environment 16, 53-66.

51.

Munn, R.E. 1966: Descriptive micrometeorology. New York : Academic Press.

52.

Myrup, L.O. 1969: A numerical model of the urban heat island. Journal of Applied Meteorology 8, 896-907.

53.

Nader, J.S. 1967: Pilot study of ultraviolet radiation in Los Angeles October 1965, No. 99-AP 38. Cincinnati: US Public Health Service.

54.

Narita, K. , Sekine, T. and Tokuoka, T. 1984: Thermal properties of urban surface materials - study on heat balance at asphalt pavement. Geographical Review of Japan 57 (9) 639-51.

55.

Noilhan, J. 1980: Contributions à l'étude du microclimat au voisinage d'un bâtiment. L'université Paul Sabatier de Toulouse, unpublished thesis.

56.

Nunez, M. 1975: The energy balance of an urban canyon . University of British Columbia, unpublished thesis.

57.

Nunez, M. and Oke, T.R. 1977: The energy balance of an urban canyon. Journal of Applied Meteorology 16, 11-19.

58.

1980: Modelling the daytime urban surface energy balance. Geographical Analysis 12,373-86.

59.

Oguntoyinbo, J.S. 1970: Reflection coefficient of natural vegetation, crops and urban surfaces in Nigeria. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 96, 430-41.

60.

Ojima, T. and Moriyama, M. 1982: Earth surface heat balance changes caused by urbanization . Energy and Buildings 4, 99-114.

61.

Oke, T.R. 1974: Review of urban climatology, 1968-1973, WMO Tech. Note No. 134, WMO No. 383. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization.

62.

1976: The distinction between canopy and boundary layer urban heat islands. Atmosphere 14, 268-77.

63.

1978 : Surface heat fluxes and the urban boundary layer. WMO Symposium for Boundary-Layer Physics Applied to Specific Problems of Air Pollution, WMO No. 510, Geneva: World Meteorology Organization. 63-70.

64.

1979a: Advectively - assisted evapotranspiration from irrigated urban vegetation. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 17, 167-74.

65.

1979 b: Review of urban climatology, 1973-1976, WMO Tech. Note No. 169, WMO No. 539. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization.

66.

1981: Canyon geometry and the nocturnal urban heat island: Comparison of scale model and field observations. Journal of Climatology 1, 237-54.

67.

1982: The energetic basis of the urban heat island. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 108, 1-24.

68.

1984: Methods in urban climatology. In Kirchhofer, W., Ohmura, A. and Wanner, H., editors, Applied climatology, Zürcher Geographische Schriften, Volume 14, 19-29.

69.

1987 : Boundary layer climates, second edition. London: Methuen.

70.

Oke, T.R. and Cleugh, H.A. 1987: Urban heat storage derived as energy balance residuals . Boundary Layer Meteorology 39, 233-45.

71.

Oke, T.R. and Fuggle, R.F. 1972: Comparison of urban/rural counter and net radiation at night. Boundary Layer Meteorology 2, 290-308.

72.

Oke, T.R. , Kalanda, B.D. and Steyn, D.G. 1981: Parameterization of heat storage in urban areas . Urban Ecology 5, 45-54.

73.

Oke, T.R. and McCaughey, J.H. 1983: Suburban-rural energy balance comparisons for Vancouver BC: an extreme case? Boundary Layer Meteorology 26, 337-54.

74.

Oke, T.R. , Yap, D. and Fuggle, R.F. 1972: Determination of urban sensible heat fluxes. In Adams, W.P. and Helleiner, F.M. , editors, International geography, University of Toronto: Toronto Press, 176-78.

75.

Paltridge, G.W. and Platt, C.M.R. 1976: Radiative processes in meteorology and climatology . Amsterdam: Elsevier.

76.

Pazyński, J. 1972: Studies on the heat balance and on evaporation . Geografica Polonica 22.

77.

Peterson, J.T. , Flowers, E.C. and Rudisill, J.H. 1978: Urban-rural solar radiation and atmospheric turbidity measurements in the Los Angeles basin. Journal of Applied Meteorology 17, 1595-609.

78.

Peterson, J.T. and Stoffel, T.L. 1980: Analysis of urban-rural solar radiation data from St Louis, Missouri. Journal of Applied Meteorology 19, 275-83.

79.

Probáld, F. 1971: The energy balance as the basis of the urban climate of Budapest. Annales Universitatis Scientiarum Budapestinensis, Sectio Geographica 7, 51-68.

80.

1974 : Air pollution and the urban climate of Budapest. In Pécsi, M. and Probáld, F. , editors, Man and environment, Budapest : Akademiai Kiadó, 191-96.

81.

Raupach, M.R. , Thom, A.S. and Edwards, I. 1980: A wind-tunnel study of turbulent flow close to regularly arrayed rough surfaces, Boundary Layer Meteorology 18, 373-97.

82.

Reiter, E.R. , Burns, C.C. , Cochrane, H. , Johnson, G.R. , Leong, H. , McKean, J. , Sheaffer, J.D. , Starr, A.M. and Webber, J. 1980: The effects of atmospheric variability on energy utilization and conservation, Environmental Research Paper 24, Colorado State University , Fort. Collins.

83.

Robinson, G.D. 1958: Some observations from aircraft of surface albedo and the albedo and absorption of cloud. Archives for Meteorology, Geophysics and Bioclimatology B, 9, 28-41.

84.

Ross, S.L. and Oke, T.R. 1988: Tests of three urban energy balance models. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 44, 73-96.

85.

Roth, M. , Oke, T.R. and Emery, W.J. 1988: Satellite-derived urban heat islands from three coastal cities and the utility of such data in urban climatology. Remote Sensing of Environment, in press.

86.

Rouse, W.R. and Bello, R.L. 1979: Shortwave radiation balance in an urban aerosol layer . Atmosphere-Ocean 17, 157-68.

87.

Rouse, W.R. , Noad, D. and McCutcheon, J. 1973: Radiation, temperature and atmospheric emissivities in a polluted urban atmosphere at Hamilton, Ontario. Journal of Applied Meteorology 12, 798-807.

88.

Saito, T. 1981: The relationship between the increase rate of downward long-wave radiation by atmospheric pollution and the visibility. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 59, 254-61.

89.

Sanderson, M. , Kumanan, I. , Tanguay, T. and Schertzer, W. 1973: Three aspects of the urban climate of Detroit-Windsor . Journal of Applied Meteorology 12, 629-38.

90.

Sievers, U. and Zdunkowski, W.G. 1985: A microscale urban climate model. Beiträge zur Physik der Atmosphäre 59, 13-40.

91.

Sekihara, K. 1973: Some aspects of radiation climate of Tokyo as observed by the eleven year measurement of spectral global radiation from 1961 to 1971 . Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 51, 119-32.

92.

Smic 1971: Inadvertent climate modification. Cambridge, Massachusetts : MIT Press.

93.

Sprigg, W.A. and Reifsnyder, W.E. 1972: Solar-radiation attenuation through the lowest 100 meters of an urban atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research 77, 6499-507.

94.

Steyn, D.G. 1985: An objective method to achieve closure of overdetermined surface energy budgets. Boundary Layer Meteorology 33, 303-10.

95.

Steyn, D.G. and Oke, T.R. 1980: Effects of a scrub fire on the surface radiation budget . Weather 35, 212-15.

96.

Suckling, P.W. 1981: Nocturnal observations of incoming longwave radiation and the urban heat island for a small prairie city. Archives for Meteorology , Geophysics and Bioclimatology B 29, 23-27.

97.

Sundborg, Å. 1951: Climatological studies in Uppsala with special regard to the temperature conditions in the urban area. Geographica 22. Geographical Institute, Uppsala University.

98.

Taesler, R. 1980: Studies of the development and thermal structure of the urban boundary layer in Uppsala. Part I: Experimental Program, and Part II: Data, analysis and results, Report 61. Meteorological Institute, Uppsala University.

99.

Tag, P.M. 1968: Surface temperatures in an urban environment. Pennsylvania State University, unpublished thesis.

100.

Terjung, W.H. 1970: Urban energy balance climatology: a preliminary investigation of the city-man system in downtown Los Angeles. Geographical Review 60, 31-53.

101.

Terjung, W.H. and Louie, S.S-F. 1974: A climatic model of urban energy budgets. Geographical Analysis 6, 341-67.

102.

Terjung, W.H. and O'Rourke, P.A. 1980: Simulating the casual elements of urban heat islands . Boundary Layer Meteorology 19, 93-118.

103.

Torrancem K.E. and Shum, J.S.W. 1976: Time-varying energy consumption as a factor in urban climate . Atmospheric Environment 10, 329-37.

104.

UK Department of Energy 1979: Heat loads in British cities. Report of the Heat Load Density Working Party of the Combined Heat and Power Group, Energy Paper No. 34. London: HMSO.

105.

Venkatram, A. and Viskanta, R. 1977: Radiative effects of elevated pollutant layers . Journal of Applied Meteorology 16, 1256-72.

106.

Vukovich, F.M. 1983: An analysis of the ground temperature and reflectivity pattern about St Louis, Missouri, using HCMM satellite data. Journal of Applied Meteorology 22, 560-71.

107.

Wang, C. and Lui, J. 1982: The climate of the City of Hangzhou. Acta Geographica Sinica 37, 164-73.

108.

Welch, R.M. , Paegle, J. and Zdunkowski, W.G. 1978: Two-dimensional numerical simulation of the effects of air pollution upon the urban-rural complex. Tellus 30, 136-50.

109.

Wesely, M.L. and Lipschutz, R.C. 1976: An experimental study of the effects of aerosols on diffuse and direct solar radiation received during the summer near Chicago . Atmospheric Environment 10, 981-87.

110.

White, J.M. , Eaton, F.D. and Auer, A.H. Jr. 1978: The net radiation budget of the St Louis metropolitan area. Journal of Applied Meteorology 17, 593-99.

111.

Wyngaard, J.C. 1973: On surface layer turbulence. In Haugen, D.A., editor, Workshop on micrometeorology , Boston: American Meteorological Society, 101-49.

112.

Yamashita, S. 1979: On the attenuation of solar radiation in Tokyo , Bulletin of Tokyo Gakugei University III, 30, 119-30.

113.

Yap, D. 1975: Seasonal excess urban energy and the nocturnal heat island - Toronto. Archives for Meteorology, Geophysics and Bioclimatology B 23, 69-80.

114.

Yap, D. and Oke, T.R. 1974: Sensible heat fluxes over an urban area - Vancouver BC . Journal of Applied Meteorology 13, 880-90.

115.

Yu, T-W. and Wagner, N.K. 1975: Numerical study of the nocturnal urban boundary layer . Boundary Layer Meteorology 9, 143-62.