Terrestrial snow cover is of significance to global geophysical systems because of its influence on both climatological and hydrological processes. Snow cover acts as a layer which modifies energy exchange between the surface and atmosphere, and as the frozen storage term in the water balance, affecting runoff and streamflow. This review addresses two challenges with regard to snow cover: how to monitor this variable adequately over time, and how to couple trends and variability in snow cover to atmospheric circulation. Developments in remote-sensing technology have provided a range of satellite-derived data products which complement in situ snow measurement procedures. Variability in data spatial resolution and domain, temporal repeatability, time series length and the level of snow-cover information derived (for example, snow extent vs. snow water equivalent) means that data application plays a large role in the utilization of an appropriate dataset. Given the variability in snow-cover data properties, the state of knowledge regarding interactions between snow cover and the atmosphere is similarly mixed. No standardized trends in continental or hemispheric snow cover are evident and the direction of forcing between snow cover and the atmosphere is still ambiguous. Identified associations are typically regional in extent, and statistically moderate in strength, proving cause-and-effect relationships difficult to identify. Future research needs are outlined, with an emphasis on passive-microwave imagery. These data have the necessary characteristics (quantitative estimates of snow-water equivalent, all-weather imaging) to provide the input data to the process based studies necessary to isolate linkages between snow cover and the atmosphere.
Armstrong, R. and Brodzik, M.. 1998: A comparison of Northern Hemisphere snow extent climatologies derived from passive microwave and visible remote sensing data. In CD-ROM proceedings, International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium ’98, Seattle, Washington, July.
2.
Armstrong, R., Chang, A., Rango, A. and Josberger, E.1993: Snow depths and grain-size relationships with relevance for passive microwave studies. Annals of Glaciology17, 171-176.
Baghdadi, N., Gauthier, Y. and Bernier, M.1997: Capability of multitemporal ERS-1 SAR data for wet-snow mapping. Remote Sensing of Environment60, 174-186.
5.
Barnett, T., Dumenil, L., Schlese, U., Roeckner, E. and Latif, M.1989: The effect of Eurasian snow-cover on regional and global climate variations. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences46, 661-685.
6.
Barnston, A. and Livezey, R.1987: Classification, seasonality and persistence of low-frequency atmospheric circulation patterns. Monthly Weather Review115, 1083-1126.
7.
Basist, A., Garrett, D., Ferraro, R., Grody, M. and Mitchell, K.1996: A comparison of snow-cover products derived from visible and microwave satellite observations. Journal of Applied Meteorology35, 163-177.
8.
Bernier, M. and Fortin, J. P.1998: The potential of time series C-band SAR data to monitor dry and shallow snow-cover. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing36, 226-245.
9.
Bretherton, C., Smith, C. and Wallace, J.1992: An intercomparison of methods for finding coupled patterns in climate data. Journal of Climate5, 541-560.
10.
Brown, R.1997: Historical variability in Northern Hemisphere spring snow-covered area. Annals of Glaciology25, 340-346.
11.
Brown, R. 1998: El Niño and North American snow-cover. In Proceedings, 55th Eastern Snow Conference, Jackson, NH, June, 165-172(www1.tor.ec.gc.ca/crysys/esc).
12.
Brown, R. and Goodison, B. 1993: Recent observed trends in modelled interannual variability in Canadian snow-cover. In Proceedings, 50th Eastern Snow Conference, Quebec City, 389-393(www1.tor.ec.gc.ca/crysys/esc).
13.
Brown, R. and Goodison, B.1996: Interannual variability in reconstructed Canadian snow-cover, 1915-1992. Journal of Climate9, 1299-1318.
14.
Brown, R. and Goodison, B. 1993: Recent observed trends in modelled interannual variability in Canadian snow-cover. In Proceedings, 50th Eastern Snow Conference, Quebec City, 389-393(www1.tor.ec.gc.ca/crysys/esc).
15.
Brown, R. and Goodison, B.1987: Operational airborne measurements of snow-water equivalent and soil moisture using terrestrial gamma radiation in the United States. In Goodison, B. E., Barry, R. G. and Dozier, J., editors, Large scale effects of seasonal snow cover. IAHS Publication 166, Wallingford: IAHS, 213-223.
16.
Cayan, D.1996: Interannual climate variability and snowpack in the western United States. Journal of Climate9, 928-948.
17.
Cess, R., Potter, G. L., Zhang, M.-H., Blanchet, J. P., Chalita, S., Colman, R., Dazlich, D. A., Del Genio, A. D., Dymnikov, V., Galin, V., Jerrett, D., Keup, E., Lacis, A. A., Le Treut, H., Liang, X.-Z., Mahfouf, J.-F., McAvaney, B. J., Meleshko, V. P., Mitchell, J. F. B., Morcrette, J. J., Norris, P. M., Randall, D. A., Rikus, L., Roeckner, E., Royer, J.-F., Schlese, U., Sheinin, D. A., Slingo, J. M., Sokolov, A. P., Taylor, K. E., Washington, W. M., Wetherald, R. T. and Yagai, I.1991: Interpretation of snow-climate feedback as produced by 17 general circulation models. Science253, 888-892.
18.
Chang, A., Foster, J. and Hall, D.1987: Nimbus-7 SMMR derived global snow-cover parameters. Annals of Glaciology9, 39-44.
19.
Chang, A., Foster, J. and Hall, D.1990: Satellite sensor estimates of Northern Hemisphere snow volume. International Journal of Remote Sensing11, 167-171.
20.
Chang, A., Foster, J., Hall, D., Goodison, B., Walker, A., Metcalfe, J. and Harby, A.1997: Snow parameters derived from microwave measurements during the BOREAS winter field campaign. Journal of Geophysical Research102, 29 663-29 671.
21.
Clark, M., Serreze, M. and Robinson, D.1999: Atmospheric controls on Eurasian snow extent. International Journal of Climatology19, 27-40.
22.
Cohen, J.1994: Snow cover and climate. Weather49, 150-156.
23.
Cohen, J. and Rind, D.1991: The effect of snow-cover on the climate. Journal of Climate4, 689-706.
24.
Colbeck, S.1987: A review of the metamorphism and classification of seasonal snow-cover crystals. In Salm, B. and Gubler, H., editors, Avalanche formation, movement, and effects. IAHS Publication 162, Wallingford: IAHS, 3-34.
25.
Derksen, C. and LeDrew, E. 1999: The influence of sensor overpass time on passive microwave derived snow-water equivalent (SWE) imagery. In CD-ROM proceedings, 1999 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Hamburg, Germany, July.
26.
Derksen, C., LeDrew, E. and Goodison, B.1998a: SSM/I derived snow-water equivalent data: the potential for investigating linkages between snow-cover and atmospheric circulation. Atmosphere-Ocean36, 95-117.
27.
Derksen, C., LeDrew, E. and Goodison, B.2000: Temporal and spatial variability in North American prairie snow-cover (1988 to 1995) inferred from passive microwave derived snow-water equivalent (SWE) imagery. Water Resources Research36, 255-266.
28.
Derksen, C., Wulder, M., LeDrew, E. and Goodison, B.1998b: Associations between spatially autocorrelated patterns of SSM/I derived prairie snow-cover and atmospheric circulation. Hydrological Processes12, 2307-2316.
29.
Dewey, K.1987a: Satellite derived maps of snow-cover frequency for the Northern Hemisphere. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology26, 1210-1229.
30.
Dewey, K.1987b: Snow cover-atmospheric interactions. In Goodison, B., Barry, R. and Dozier, J., editors, Large scale effects of seasonal snow-cover. IAHS Publication 166, Wallingford: IAHS, 27-41.
31.
Dong, B. and Valdes, P.1998: Modelling the Asian summer monsoon rainfall and Eurasian winter/spring snow mass. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society124, 2567-2596.
32.
Dozier, J.1989: Spectral signature of alpine snow-cover from Landsat Thematic Mapper. Remote Sensing of Environment28, 9-22.
33.
Dozier, J. and Marks, D.1987: Snow mapping and classification from Landsat Thematic Mapper data. Annals of Glaciology9, 97-103.
34.
Dozier, J., Schneider, S. and McGinnis, D.1981: Effect of grain size and snowpack water equivalance on visible and near-infrared satellite observations of snow. Water Resources Research17, 1213-1221.
35.
Elder, K., Rosenthal, W. and Davis, R.1998: Estimating the spatial distribution of snow-water equivalence in a montane watershed. Hydrological Processes12, 1793-1808.
36.
Foster, J., Chang, A. and Hall, D.1997: Comparison of snow mass estimates from a prototype passive microwave snow algorithm, a revised algorithm and a snow depth climatology. Remote Sensing of Environment62, 132-142.
37.
Foster, J., Chang, A., Hall, D. and Rango, A.1991: Derivation of snow-water equivalent in boreal forests using microwave radiometry. Arctic44(Supp 1), 147-152.
38.
Foster, J., Owe, M. and Rango, A.1983: Snow cover and temperature relationships in North America and Eurasia. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology22, 460-469.
39.
Frei, A. and Robinson, D.1998: Evaluation of snow extent and its variability in the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project. Journal of Geophysical Research103, 8859-8872.
40.
Fritzsche, A.1982: The National Weather Service gamma snow system physics and calibration. Publication NWS-8201 Las Vegas, NV: EG&G, Inc.
41.
Goita, K., Walker, A., Goodison, B. and Chang, A. 1997: Estimation of snow-water equivalent in the boreal forest using passive microwave data. In CD-ROM proceedings, Geomatics in the Era of Radarsat, Ottawa, Ontario, May.
42.
Goodison, B. 1989: Determination of areal snow-water equivalent on the Canadian prairies using passive microwave satellite data. In Proceedings, IGARSS’89, Vancouver 3, Piscataway. NJ: IEEE, 1243-1246.
43.
Goodison, B., Glynn, J., Harvey, K. and Slater, J.1987: Snow surveying in Canada: a perspective. Canadian Water Resources Journal12, 28-42.
44.
Goodison, B., Rubinstein, I., Thirkettle, F. and Langham, E. 1986: Determination of snow-water equivalent on the Canadian prairies using microwave radiometry. In Morris, E. M., editors, Proceedings of the Budapest symposium, ‘Modelling snowmelt-induced processes. IAHS Publication 155, Wallingford: IAHS, 163-173.
45.
Goodison, B., Sevrak, B. and Klemm, S.1989: WMO solid precipitation measurement inter-comparison: objectives, methodology, analysis. In Dellear, J. W., editor, Atmospheric deposition. IAHS Publication 179, Wallingford: IAHS, 57-64.
46.
Goodison, B. and Walker, A.1993: Use of snow-cover derived from satellite passive microwave data as indicator of climatic change. Annals of Glaciology17, 137-142.
47.
Goodison, B. and Walker, A.1994: Canadian development and use of snow-cover information from passive microwave satellite data. In Choudhury, B., Kerr, Y., Njoku, E. and Pampaloni, P., editors, Passive microwave remote sensing of land-atmosphere interactions, Utrecht: VSP BV245-262.
48.
Grody, N. and Basist, A.1996: Global identification of snowcover using SSM/I measurements. IEEE Transactions on Geosciences and Remote Sensing34, 237-249.
49.
Grody, N., Rosenfeld, S. and Basist, A. 1998: Relationship between SSM/I measurements and snow conditions. In CD-ROM proceedings, International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium’98, Seattle, Washington, July.
50.
Groisman, P. and Easterling, D.1994: Variability and trends of total precipitation and snowfall over the United States and Canada. Journal of Climate7, 184-205.
51.
Groisman, P., Easterling, D., Quayle, R. and Golubev, V.1996: Reducing biases in estimates of precipitation over the United States: phase 3 adjustments. Journal of Geophysical Research101, 7185-7195.
52.
Groisman, P., Karl, T., Knight, R. and Stenchikov, G.1994: Changes of snow-cover, temperature, and radiative heat balance over the Northern Hemisphere. Journal of Climate7, 1633-1656.
53.
Grundstein, A. and Leathers, D.1998: A case study of the synoptic patterns influencing midwinter snowmelt across the Northern Great Plains. Hydrological Processes12, 2293-2305.
54.
Gutzler, D. and Preston, J.1997: Evidence for a relationship between spring snow-cover in North America and summer rainfall in New Mexico. Geophysical Research Letters24, 2207-2210.
55.
Gutzler, D. and Rosen, R.1992: Interannual variability of wintertime snow-cover across the Northern Hemisphere. Journal of Climate5, 1441-1447.
56.
Hall, D., Chang, A. and Foster, J.1986: Detection of the depth-hoar layer in the snow-pack of the Arctic coastal plain of Alaska, USA, using satellite data. Journal of Glaciology32, 87-94.
57.
Hall, D., Foster, J. and Chang, A.1982: Measurement and modeling of microwave emission from forested snowfields in Michigan. Nordic Hydrology13, 129-138.
58.
Hall, D., Foster, J., Verbyla, D., Klein, A. and Benson, C.1998: Assessment of snow-cover mapping accuracy in a variety of vegetation-cover densities in central Alaska. Remote Sensing of Environment66, 129-137.
59.
Hall, D., Riggs, G. and Salomonson, V.1995: Development of methods for mapping global snow-cover using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer data. Remote Sensing of Environment54, 127-140.
60.
Hall, D., Sturm, M., Benson, C., Chang, A., Foster, J., Garbeil, H. and Chacho, E.1991: Passive microwave remote and in situ measurements of arctic and subarctic snow-covers in Alaska. Remote Sensing of Environment38, 161-172.
61.
Hallikainen, M. and Jolma, P.1992: Comparison of algorithms for retrieval of snow-water equivalent from Nimbus-7 SMMR data in Finland. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing30, 124-131.
62.
Hare, F. K. and Thomas, M.1974: Climate Canada. Toronto: Wiley.
63.
Hughes, M. and Robinson, D. 1993: Snow cover variability in the Great Plains of the United States: 1910-1988. In Proceedings, 50th Eastern Snow Conference, Quebec City, 35-42(www1.tor.ec.gc.ca/crysys/esc).
64.
Hughes, M. and Robinson, D.1996: Historical snow-cover variability in the Great Plains region of the USA: 1910 through to 1993. International Journal of Climatology16, 1005-1018.
65.
Hughes, M. and Robinson, D.1998: Global warming. Progress in Physical Geography22, 398-406.
66.
Josberger, E., Gloerson, P., Chang, A. and Rango, A.1995: The effects of snowpack grain size on satellite passive microwave observations from the Upper Colorado River Basin. Journal of Geophysical Research101, 6679-6688.
67.
Karl, T., Groisman, P., Knight, R. and Heim, R.1993: Recent variations of snow-cover and snowfall in North America and their relation to precipitation and temperature variations. Journal of Climate6, 1327-1344.
68.
Kunzi, K., Patil, S. and Rott, H.1982: Snow cover parameters retrieved from Nimbus-7 Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) data. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing20, 452-467.
69.
Kurvonen, L. and Hallikainen, M.1997: Influence of land-cover category on brightness temperature of snow. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing35, 367-377.
70.
Leathers, D. and Ellis, A.1996: Synoptic mechanisms associated with snowfall increases to the lee of Lakes Erie and Ontario. International Journal of Climatology16, 1117-1135.
71.
Leathers, D., Ellis, A. and Robinson, D.1995: Characteristics of temperature depressions associated with snow-cover across the northeast United States. Journal of Applied Meteorology34, 381-390.
72.
Leathers, D. and Robinson, D.1993: The association between extremes in North American snow-cover extent and United States temperatures. Journal of Climate6, 1345-1355.
73.
Leathers, D., Yarnal, B. and Palecki, M.1991: The Pacific/North American teleconnection pattern and United States climate. Part I. Regional temperature and precipitation associations. Journal of Climate4, 517-527.
74.
LeDrew, E. and Derksen, C. 1999: SSM/I imagery of sea ice, Q-vectors and synoptic-scale linkages between the atmosphere and cryosphere: eighteen years of variability in the Beaufort Sea. The example of principal component one of sea ice. In CD-ROM proceedings, 1999 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Hamburg, Germany, July.
75.
McCabe, G. and Legates, D.1995: Relationships between 700 hPa height anomalies and April snow pack accumulations in the Western USA. International Journal of Climatology15, 517-530.
76.
Namias, J.1985: Some empirical evidence for the influence of snow-cover on temperature and precipitation. Monthly Weather Review113, 1542-1553.
77.
Nolin, A., Dozier, J. and Mertes, L.1993: Mapping alpine snow using a spectral mixture modeling technique. Annals of Glaciology17, 121-124.
78.
NSIDC1994: Historical Soviet Daily Snow Depth (HDSD) CD-ROM. Boulder, CO: National Snow and Ice Data Center.
79.
Rango, A.1983: A survey of progress in remote sensing of snow and ice. In Goodison, B. E., editor, Hydrological applications of remote sensing and remote data transmission. IAHS Publication145, Wallingford: IAHS, 347-359.
80.
Riggs, G., Hall, D. and Salomonson, V. 1994: A snow index for the Landsat thematic mapper and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer. In Proceedings, International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Pasadena, CA, August, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 1942-1944.
81.
Robinson, D.1993: Hemispheric snow-cover from satellites. Annals of Glaciology17, 367-371.
82.
Ross, B. and Walsh, J.1986: Synoptic-scale influences of snow-cover and sea ice. Monthly Weather Review114, 1795-1810.
83.
Rott, H. and Kunzi, K.1983: Remote sensing of snow-cover with passive and active microwave sensors. In Goodison, B. E., editor, Hydrological applications of remote sensing and remote data transmission. IAHS Publication 145, Wallingford: IAHS, 361-369.
84.
Serreze, M., Clark, M., McGinnis, D. and Robinson, D.1998: Characteristics of snowfall over the eastern half of the United States and relationships with principal modes of low-frequency atmospheric variability. Journal of Climate11, 234-250.
85.
Shi, J., Dozier, J. and Rott, H.1994: Snow mapping in alpine regions with synthetic aperture radar. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing32, 152-158.
86.
Stiles, W. and Ulaby, F.1980: The active and passive microwave response to snow parameters. 1. Wetness. Journal of Geophysical Research22, 1037-1044.
87.
Tait, A.1998: Estimation of snow-water equivalent using passive microwave radiation data. Remote Sensing of Environment64, 286-291.
88.
Tait, A., Hall, D., Foster, J., Chang, A. and Klein, A.1999: Detection of snow-cover using millimeter-wave imaging radiometer (MIR) data. Remote Sensing of Environment68, 53-60.
89.
Walker, A. and Goodison, B.1993: Discrimination of a wet snow-cover using passive microwave satellite data. Annals of Glaciology17, 307-311.
90.
Wallace, J. and Gutzler, D.1981: Teleconnections in the potential height field during the Northern Hemisphere winter. Monthly Weather Review109, 784-812.
91.
Walland, D. and Simmonds, I.1997: Modelled atmospheric response to changes in North American snow-cover. Climate Dynamics13, 25-34.
92.
Walsh, J.1984: Snow cover and atmospheric variability. American Scientist72, 50-57.
93.
Walsh, J., Jasperson, W. and Ross, B.1985: Influences of snow-cover and soil moisture on monthly air temperature. Monthly Weather Review113, 756-768.
94.
Walsh, J. and Ross, B.1988: Sensitivity of 30-day dynamical forecasts to continental snow-cover. Journal of Climate1, 739-754.
95.
Walsh, J., Tucek, D. and Peterson, M.1982: Seasonal snow-cover and short-term climatic fluctuations over the United States. Monthly Weather Review110, 1474-1485.
96.
Warren, S. and Wiscombe, W.1980: A model for the spectral albedo of snow. II. Snow containing atmospheric aerosols. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences37, 2734-2745.
97.
Watanabe, M. and Nitta, T.1999: Decadal changes in the atmospheric circulation and associated surface climate variations in the Northern Hemisphere winter. Journal of Climate12, 494-510.
98.
Wiesnet, D. and Matson, M.1976: A possible forecasting technique for winter snow-cover in the Northern Hemisphere and Eurasia. Monthly Weather Review104, 828-835.
99.
Wiesnet, D., Ropelewski, C., Kukla, G. and Robinson, D.1987: A discussion of the accuracy of NOAA satellite-derived global seasonal snow-cover measurements. In Goodison, B. E., Barry, R. G. and Dozier J., editors, Large scale effects of seasonal snow cover. IAHS Publication 166, Wallingford: IAHS, 291-304.
100.
Wiscombe, W. and Warren, S.1980: A model for the spectral albedo of snow. I. Pure snow. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences37, 2712-2733.
101.
Yang, D. and Goodison, B.1998: Comment on ‘Reducing biases in estimates of precipitation over the United States: phase 3 adjustments’ by P.Y. Groisman et al. Journal of Geophysical Research103, 6221-6227.
102.
Yang, D., Goodison, B., Ishida, S. and Benson, C.1998: Adjustment of daily precipitation data at 10 climate stations in Alaska: application of World Meteorological Organization intercom-parison results. Water Resources Research34, 241-256.
103.
Yang, D., Goodison, B., Metcalfe, JJ., Louie, P., Leavesley, G., Emerson, D., Hanson, C., Golubev, V., Elomaa, E., Gunther, T., Pangburn, T., Kang, E. and Milkovic, J.1999: Quantification of precipitation measurement discontinuity induced by wind shields on national gauges. Water Resources Research35, 491-508.
104.
Ye, H., Cho, H. and Gustafson, P.1998: The changes in Russian winter snow accumulation during 1936-83 and its spatial patterns. Journal of Climate11, 856-863.
105.
Zwally, H. and Gloerson, P.1977: Passive microwave images of the polar regions and research applications. Polar Record18, 431-450.
