Circumcision and Circumstance: Male Genital Mutilation in Ancient Israel and Ugarit

Abstract

Circumcision appears in Genesis 17 as an infant rite, and mark of the covenant; Genesis 34 and Exod. 4.24-26 are written against a background of an adult rite, associated with marriage and fertility. By means of an attempted literary history of the motif, this study attempts a historical reconstruction of the evolution of the ritual tradition, from common West Semitic marital rite de passage into specifically Jewish infant rite of social integration.

Keywords

Covenant circumcision election identity-markers rites of passage ritual.

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aberbach, M. , and L. Smolar 1967 `Aaron, Jeroboam and the Golden Calves', JBL 86: 129-40.

Aistleitner, J. 1953 `Götterzeugung in Ugarit und Dilmun (SS und Ni. 4561)' , Acta Orientalia Hungarica 112: 385-401.

Allan, R. 1999 `Now that Summer's Gone: Understanding q in KTU 1.24', SEL 16: 19-25.

Bakan, D. 1979 And they Took Themselves Wives: The Emergence of Patriarchy in Western Civilization (San Francisco: Harper Row).

Barton, G.A. 1910 `Circumcision (Semitic)', in Hastings (ed.) 1910: III, 679-80.

Beltz, W. 1975 `Religionsgeschichtliche Marginalie zu Ex 4 24-26' , ZAW 87: 209-11.

Biggs, R.D. 1995 `Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia' , in Sasson (ed.) 1995: 1911-24.

Burrow, T. 1973 `The Proto-Indoaryans', JRAS: 123-40.

Caspi, M.M. 1985 `The Story of the Rape of Dinah: The Narrator and the Reader' , Hebrew Studies 26: 25-45.

10.

Clines, D.J.A. 1978 The Theme of the Pentateuch (JSOTSup, 10; Sheffield: JSOT Press).

11.

Davies, P.R. 1995 In Search of `Ancient Israel' (JSOTSup, 148; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 2nd edn).

12.

Day, J. (ed.) 2004 In Search of Pre-exilic Israel (JSOTSup, 406; London: T&T Clark International).

13.

Diakonoff, I.M. 1972 `Die Arier im Vorderen Orient: Ende eines Mythos (zur Methodik der Erforschung verschollener Sprachen)', Or 41: 91-120.

14.

Dijkstra, M. 1998 `Astral Myth of the Birth of Shahar and Shalim (KTU 1.23)' , in M. Dietrich and I. Kottsieper (eds.), ` Und Mose schrieb dieses Lied auf…' Studien zum Alten Testament und zum Alten Orient. Festschrift für O. Loretz zur Vollendung seines 70. Lebensjahres mit Beiträgen von Freunden, Schülern und Kollegen (AOAT, 250; Münster: Ugarit-Verlag): 265-87.

15.

Dumbrell, W. 1972 `Exodus 4.24-26: A Textual Re-examination', HTR 65: 285-90.

16.

Dumont, P.-E. 1947 `Indo-Aryan Names from Mitanni, Nuzi and Syrian Documents' , JAOS 67: 251-53.

17.

Eilberg-Schwartz, H. 1990 The Savage in Judaism: An Anthropology of Israelite Religion and Ancient Judaism (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press).

18.

1994 God's Phallus and Other Problems for Men and Monotheism (Boston, MA: Beacon).

19.

Foucart, G. 1910 `Circumcision (Egyptian)', in Hastings (ed.) 1910: III, 670-77.

20.

Gaster, T.H. 1961 Thespis: Ritual, Myth and Drama in the Ancient Near East (New York: Harper, 2nd edn).

21.

Gifford, E.H. 2007 Eusebius' Preparation for the Gospel (2 vols.; Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock ; reprint of 1903 edition, translation only).

22.

Gooding, D.W.

1977

`Traditions of Interpretation of the Circumcision at Gilgal' , in A. Shinan (ed.), Proceedings of the Sixth World Congress of Jewish Studies ( Jerusalem: World Union of Jewish Studies): 149-64.

23.

Gray, L.H. 1910 `Circumcision (Introductory)', in Hastings (ed.) 1910: III, 659-70.

24.

Groot, J. de 1943 `The Story of the Bloody Husband (Exodus iv 24-26)' , OTS 2: 10-17.

25.

Grossfeld, B. 1988 The Targum Onqelos to Exodus (TAB, 7; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark).

26.

Hall, R.G. 1992 `Circumcision', in ABD: I, 1025-31.

27.

Harris, J.R. 1906 The Cult of the Heavenly Twins (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press).

28.

Hastings, J. (ed.) 1910 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark).

29.

Hoffman, L.A. 1996 Covenant of Blood: Circumcision and Gender in Rabbinic Judaism (CSHJ; Chicago: University of Chicago Press).

30.

Houtman, C. 1983 `Exodus 4.24-26 and its Interpretation', JNSL 11: 81-105.

31.

Isaac, E. 1965 `Circumcision as a Covenant Rite', Anthropos 59: 444-56.

32.

Jonckheere, F. 1951 `La circoncision des anciens Egyptiens', Centaurus 1: 212-34.

33.

Kaplan, L. 1981 ` "And the Lord sought to kill him" (Exod 4.24): Yet Once Again', HAR 5: 65-74.

34.

Kessler, M. 1965-66 `Genesis 34-An Interpretation', RR 19: 3-8.

35.

Kosmala, H. 1962 `The "Bloody Husband" ', VT 12: 14-28.

36.

1964 `Mot and the Vine: The Time of the Ugaritic Fertility Cult' , ASTI 3: 147-51.

37.

Kunin, S.D. 1996 `The Bridegroom of Blood: A Structuralist Analysis' , JSOT 70: 3-16.

38.

Kutch, E. 1977 ` "Der sogenannte Blutbrautigam": Erwagungen zu Ex 4, 24-26' , ZDMGSup 4: 122-23.

39.

Lehming, S. 1958 `Zur Überlieferungsgeschichte von Gen 34', ZAW 70: 228-50.

40.

Levinson, B.M. 2004 `Is the Covenant Code an Exilic Composition?', in Day (ed) 2004: 272-325.

41.

Liagre Böhl, F.M.T. de 1936 `Oud-Babylonischen Mythen', JEOL 4: 194-204.

42.

Lightfoot-Klein, H. 1989 Prisoners of Ritual: An Odyssey into Female Genital Circumcision in Africa (New York: Haworth).

43.

Margoliouth, D.S. 1910 `Circumcision (Muhammadan)', in Hastings (ed.) 1910: 677-79.

44.

McNamara, M. , with R. Hayward and M. Maher 1994 Targum Neofiti 1: Exodus; Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Exodus (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark).

45.

McNutt, P. 1994 `The Kenites, the Midianites, and the Rechabites as Marginal Mediators in Ancient Israelite Tradition', Semeia 67: 109-32.

46.

Middlekoop, P. 1967 `The Significance of the Story of the Bloody Husband (Ex. 4 24-26)', South East Asia Journal of Theology 8: 34-38.

47.

Mitchell, T.C. 1969 `The Meaning of the Noun tn in the Old Testament' , VT 19: 93-112.

48.

Morgenstern, J. 1963 `The "Bloody Husband" (?) (Exod. 4.24-26) Once Again' , HUCA 34: 35-70.

49.

O'Callaghan, R.T. 1948 Aram Naharaim (AnOr, 26, Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute).

50.

O'Flaherty, W.D. 1981 The Rig Veda: An Anthology of One Hundred and Eight Hymns ( Harmondsworth: Penguin).

51.

Pardee, D. 1997 `Dawn and Dusk (1.87) (The Birth of the Gracious and Beautiful Gods)', in COS: I, 274-83.

52.

Parker, S.B. (ed.) 1997 Ugaritic Narrative Poetry (SBLWAW, 9; Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press).

53.

Pitt-Rivers, S. 1977 The Fate of Shechem (CSSA, 19; Cambridge : Cambridge University Press).

54.

Propp, W.H. 1993 `That Bloody Bridegroom (Exodus IV 24-6)', VT 43: 495-518.

55.

Pury, A. de 1969 `Genèse XXXIV et 1'histoire', RB 76: 5-49.

56.

Redford, D.B. 1967 `The Literary Motif of the Exposed Child', Numen 14: 209-28.

57.

Robinson, B.P. 1986 `Zipporah to the Rescue: A Contextual Study of Exodus IV 24-6', VT 36: 447-61.

58.

Sasson, J.M. 1966 `Circumcision in the Ancient Near East', JBL 85: 473-76.

59.

Sasson, J.M. (ed.) 1995 Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (4 vols., numbered continuously; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson).

60.

Schmid, H. 1966 `Mose, der Blutbraütigem', Judaica 22: 113-18.

61.

Shankman, R. 1991 `The Cut that Unites: Word as Covenant in Exodus 4.24-26' , Cross Currents 41: 168-78.

62.

Smith, M.S. 2006 The Rituals and Myths of the Feast of the Goodly Gods of KTU/CAT 1.23: Royal Constructions of Opposition, Intersection, Integration, and Domination (Atlanta, GA: SBL ).

63.

Sparks, K.L. 2005 Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible: A Guide to the Background Literature (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson).

64.

Stavrakopoulou, F. 2004 King Manasseh and Child Sacrifice: Biblical Distortions of Historical Realities (BZAW, 338; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter).

65.

Stracmans, M. 1959 `Encore un texte peu connu relatif à la circoncision des anciens Egyptiens', Archivo Internationale di Einografia e Preistoria 2: 7-15.

66.

Tal, A. 1994 Hamisha Humshé Torah lefi nusa Shomron ( Tel Aviv: Bet ha-Sefer le-mada<e ha-Yahadut).

67.

Thieme, P. 1960 `The "Aryan" Gods of the Mitanni Treaties', JAOS 80: 301-17.

68.

Thompson, T.L. 1974 The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham (BZAW, 133; Berlin: de Gruyter ).

69.

1998 The Bible as History: How Writers Create a Past ( London: Jonathan Cape).

70.

Van Seters, J. 1975 Abraham in History and Tradition ( New Haven, CT: Yale University Press).

71.

2003 A Law Book for the Diaspora: Revision in the Study of the Covenant Code (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

72.

Velde, H. te 1995 `Theology, Priests and Worship in Ancient Egypt', in Sasson (ed.) 1995: 1731-49.

73.

Vermes, G. 1957-58 `Baptism and Jewish Exegesis : New Light from Ancient Sources', NTS 4: 308-19.

74.

Walters, J.A. 2002 `Moses at the Lodging Place: The Devil is in the Ambiguities' , Encounter 63: 407-25.

75.

Weeks, K.R. 1995 `Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Egypt' , in Sasson (ed.) 1995: 1787-98.

76.

Westermann, C. 1986 Genesis 12-36 (London: SPCK) (ET of Genesis [BKAT; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2nd edn]).

77.

Wit, C. de 1973 `La circoncision chez les anciens Egyptiens', Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 99: 41-48.

78.

Wyatt, N. 1979 `The Development of the Tradition in Exodus 3', ZAW 91: 437-442 (reprinted in Wyatt 2005b: 6-12).

79.

1985 ` "Jedidiah" and Cognate Forms as a Title of Royal Legitimation' , Bib 66: 112-25 (reprinted in Wyatt 2005c: 13-22).

80.

1987a `Sea and Desert: Symbolic Geography in West Semitic Religious Thought', UF 19: 375-89 (reprinted in Wyatt 2005b: 38-54).

81.

1987b `Echoes of the King and his Ka: An Ideological Motif in the Story of Solomon's Birth', UF 19: 399-404 (reprinted in Wyatt 2005c: 49-53).

82.

1989 `Aśvamedha and Puru amedha in Ancient India', Religion 19: 1-11.

83.

1990a `Symbols of Exile', SEÅ 55 : 39-58 (reprinted in Wyatt 2005b: 55-71).

84.

1990b `The Story of Dinah and Shechem', UF 22: 434-58 (to be reprinted in Wyatt forthcoming a).

85.

1990c `David's Census and the Tripartite Theory', VT 40: 352-60.

86.

1992a `A New Look at the Term šdmt', JSS 37: 149-53 (reprinted in Wyatt 2007 : 1-5).

87.

1992b `The Pruning of the Vine in KTU 1.23', UF 24: 425-27 (reprinted in Wyatt 2007 : 41-45).

88.

1992c `Of Calves and Kings: The Canaanite Dimension in Israelite Religion', SJOT 6: 68-91 (reprinted in Wyatt 2005b: 72-91).

89.

1994 `The Theogony Motif in Ugarit and the Bible', in G.J. Brooke , A. H.W. Curtis and J.F. Healey (eds.), Ugarit and the Bible (UBL, 11; Münster: Ugarit-Verlag): 395-49 (reprinted in Wyatt 2005c: 85-101).

90.

1995 `The Liturgical Context of Psalm 19 and its Mythical and Ritual Origins', UF 27: 559-96 (reprinted in Wyatt 2005c: 103-31).

91.

2002 `Ilimilku the Theologian: The Ideological Roles of Athtar and Baal in KTU 1.1 and 1.6', in O. Loretz , K. Metzler and H. Schaudig (eds.), Ex Mesopotamia et Syria Lux. Festschrift für Manfried Dietrich zu seinem 65. Geburtstag ( AOAT, 281; Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2002) (reprinted in Wyatt 2005 c: 221-30).

92.

2005 a `Le mariage et le meurtre: strategies royales au Levant' , in J.-M. Michaud (ed.), La Bible et l'Héritage d'Ougarit (Proche-Orient et Littérature Ougaritique, 1; Sherbrooke, QC: GGC) (reprinted in English translation as `Marriage, Mayhem and Murder: An Everyday Story of Royal Folk' in Wyatt 2005c: 231-51).

93.

2005b The Mythic Mind: Essays on Cosmology in Ugaritic and Old Testament Literature (Bible World; London : Equinox).

94.

2005c ` There's Such Divinity Doth Hedge a King': Selected Essays of Nicolas Wyatt on Royal Ideology in Ugaritic and Old Testament Literature (SOTS Monograph Series; London: Ashgate).

95.

2007 Word of Tree and Whisper of Stone, and Other Papers on Ugaritian Thought (Gorgias Ugaritic Studies, 1; Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press).

96.

forthcoming a The Archaeology of Myth: Papers on Old Testament Tradition (Bible World; London: Equinox).

97.

forthcoming b `The Concept and Purpose of Hell: Its Nature and Development in West Semitic Thought', forthcoming in Numen 56: 2-3.