As part of its remit to critically evaluate adoption policy and practice, the Evan B Donaldson Adoption Institute, based in New York, recently held a major international conference on the role of ethics in adoption. In collaboration with former Institute Director Madelyn Freundlich, Rena Phillips reports on some of the conference discussions and debates around four key ethical issues in adoption: secrecy and openness; the role of race, culture and national origin; market forces; and the relationship between adoption and the emerging reproductive technologies. Parallels and differences are drawn between the United States and the UK, and questions are raised as to how ethical standards can be developed and monitored.
AbmaJ CChandraAMosherW DPetersonL SPiccininoL J, ‘Fertility, family planning and women's health: new data from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth. National Center for Health Statistics’, Vital Health Statistics23:19, pp 1–35, 1997.
2.
AbramsonM, ‘Genetics and special needs adoption: ethical issues’, in RauchJ B (ed), Genetics and Adoption: Every child potentially a special needs child, Baltimore, MD: University of Maryland, circa 1990.
AndujoE, ‘Ethnic identity of trans-ethnically adopted Hispanic adolescents’, Social Work37, pp 531–35, 1988.
5.
AnnasG J, ‘Ethics in a world ruled by law and the market: adoption, assisted reproduction and parenthood’, Presentation at the conference, Ethics and Adoption: Challenges for today and the future, 3 November, 1999.
6.
BabbL A, Ethics in Adoption, Westport, CT: Bergn & Garvey, 1999.
7.
BanksS, Ethics and Values in Social Work, London: Macmillan, 1995.
8.
BarnR, Black Children in the Public Care System, London: Batsford/BAAF, 1993.
9.
BarnR, ‘Mixed parentage children’, British Journal of Social Work29, pp 269–84, 1999.
10.
BebbingtonAMilesJ, ‘The background of children who enter local authority care’, British Journal of Social Work19:5, pp 349–68, 1989.
11.
BeckerS, Responding to Poverty: The politics of cash and care, London: Longman, 1997.
12.
BeckettCBredenkampDCastleJGroothuesC and the English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) study team, ‘The role of social workers in intercountry adoption: an analysis of the experience of adopters from Romania’, Adoption & Fostering23:4, pp 15–25, 1999.
13.
BenwardJ, ‘A case for cross-fertilization: adoption and the reproductive technologies’, Presentation at the conference, Ethics and Adoption: Challenges for today and the future, 5 November 1999.
14.
BlythE, ‘Sharing genetic origins information in third party assisted conception: a case for Victorian family values’, Children & Society14:1, pp 11–22, 2000.
15.
BrooksDBarthR PBussiereAPattersonG, ‘Adoption and race: implementing the Multiethnic Placement Act and the Inter-ethnic Adoption Provisions’, Social Work44:2, pp 167–75, 1999.
16.
CarpW, Family Matters: Secrecy and disclosure in the history of adoption, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1998.
17.
ClarkC, Social Work Ethics: Politics, principles and practice, London: Macmillan, 2000.
18.
ColeEDonleyK, ‘History, values and placement policy issues in adoption’, in BrodzinskyDSchechterM, The Psychology of Adoption, New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.
19.
ComerJ PPoussaintA F, Black Child Care: How to bring up a healthy Black child in America, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1975.
20.
CourtneyM E, ‘The politics and realities of transracial adoption’, Child Welfare76:6, pp 749–80, 1997.
21.
DanceCCullenDCollierF, Focus on Adoption: A snapshot of adoption patterns in England — 1995, London: BAAF, 1997.
22.
Department of Health and Social Security, Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Human Fertilisation and Embryology, London: HMSO (Warnock Report), Cmd. 9314, 1984.
23.
Department of Health, Adoption: Achieving the right balance, Cir LAC (98) 20, 1998.
EscobarG, ‘Lawyer's kidnap spotlights Louisiana adoption laws’, Washington Post, p C01, 16 November 1998.
26.
FreundlichM, The Market Forces in Adoption, Washington, DC: CWLA Press, 2000.
27.
GarrettP M, ‘Responding to Irish “invisibility”: anti-discriminatory social work practice and the placement of Irish children in Britain’, Adoption & Fostering24:1, pp 23–33, 2000.
28.
GreenfieldJ, ‘Intercountry adoption: a comparison between France and England’, Adoption & Fostering19:2, pp 31–36, 1995.
29.
GritterJ, ‘The trend of commercialization in adoption’, Decree1, pp 9–13, 1999.
30.
GroothuesCBeckettCO'ConnorT, ‘The outcome of adoptions from Romania: predictors of parental satisfaction’, Adoption & Fostering22:4, pp 3–40, 1998/99.
31.
HarnottCRobertsonR, ‘Intercountry adoption: implications for adoption agencies and medical advisers,’ Adoption & Fostering23:4, pp 26–34, 1999.
32.
HollandT PKirkpatrickA C, ‘Ethical issues in social work: toward a grounded theory of professional ethics’, Social Work36:2, pp 140–44, 1991.
33.
HollingerJ H, ‘Aftermath of adoption: legal and social consequences’, in HollingerJ H (ed), Adoption Law and PracticeVol 2, New York: Matthew Bender, Rel. 10–4/1998.
34.
IvaldiG, Children Adopted from Care: An examination of agency adoptions in England — 1996, London: BAAF, 1998.
35.
KennedyR, ‘Orphans of separatism: the painful politics of transracial adoption’, The American Prospect17, pp 38–45, 1994.
36.
KimW J, ‘International adoption: a case review of Korean children’, Child Psychiatry & Human Development25:3, pp 141–54, 1995.
37.
KirtonD, ‘Race’, Ethnicity and Adoption, Buckingham: Open University Press, 2000.
38.
KramerR, ‘Adoption in black and white’, The Wall Street Journal, p 23, 24 October 1994.
39.
KuhnsJ, ‘The sealed adoption records controversy: breaking down the walls of secrecy’, Golden Gate University Law Review24:1, pp 259–97, 1994.
40.
LoweNMurchMBorkowskiMWeaverABeckfordVThomasC, Supporting Adoption: Reframing the approach, London: BAAF, 1999.
41.
McFaddenJ, ‘Kinship care in the United States’, Adoption & Fostering22:3, pp 6–15, 1998.
42.
McRoyR GOglesbyZGrapeH, ‘Achieving same-race adoptive placements for African-American children: culturally sensitive practice approaches’, Child Welfare76:1, pp 85–106, 1997.
43.
McRoyRZurcherL, Transracial and Inracial Adoptees: The adolescent years, Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publishers, 1983.
44.
MansnerusL, ‘Market puts price tags on the priceless’, The New York Times, pp A1, A16–A17, 28 October 1998.
45.
MerrittW T, Excerpt from testimony by William T Merritt, President of the National Association of Black Social Workers, during US Senate Hearings of the Committee on Labor and Human Resources, 25 June 1985.
46.
National Adoption Information Clearinghouse, Adoption Statistics for 1996, Available on-line: [http://www.naic.info.com/stats.htm], 1996.
47.
National Council for Adoption, ‘Open records and anti-adoption groups hail “secrets and lies”’, National Adoption Reports18:2, p 4, 1997.
48.
OkitikpiT, ‘Children of mixed parentage in care: why such a high number?’, Child Care in Practice5:4, pp 396–405, 1999.
49.
PertmanA, ‘Vying to be among the chosen’, Boston Globe, pp A1, A10–11, 9 March 1998.
50.
PhillipsR, ‘Disabled children in permanent substitute families’, in RobinsonCStalkerR (eds), Growing Up with Disability: Research highlights in social work34, London: Jessica Kingsley, 1998.
51.
PhoenixA, ‘Sensitive to race and ethnicity? The intersection of social work, psychology and politics in transracial adoption practice’, in MesserDJonesF (eds), Psychology and Social Care, London: Jessica Kingsley, 1999.
52.
PlumtreeA, ‘Confidentiality, disclosure and non-disclosure of genetic information: legal perspectives’, in TurnpennyP (ed), Secrets in the Genes, London: BAAF, 1995.
53.
RushtonAMinnisH, ‘Annotation: transracial family placements’, Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry18:2, pp 147–59, 1997.
54.
RushtonAMinnisH, ‘Research review: transracial placements: a commentary on a new adult outcome study’, Adoption & Fostering24:1, pp 53–58, 2000.
55.
RyburnM, ‘Adoption in England and Wales: current issues and future trends’, in HillMAldgateJ (eds), Child Welfare Services: Developments in law, policy, practice and research, London: Jessica Kingsley, 1996.
56.
SawbridgeP, ‘After the adoption: a three-cornered perspective’, in TunnardJ (ed), Adoption and Birth Families: Getting law and practice right for their children, London: Family Rights Group, 1996.
57.
SelmanPWellsS, ‘Post-adoption issues in intercountry adoption’, in PhillipsRMcWilliamE (eds), After Adoption: Working with adoptive families, London: BAAF, 1996.
58.
ShardlowS, ‘Confidentiality, accountability and the boundaries of client—worker relationships’, in HugmanRSmithD (eds), Ethical Issues in Social Work, London: Routledge, 1995.
59.
SiegelD H, Adoption, Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics, Vol I, New York: Academic Press, 1998.
60.
SmithG, ‘Meeting the placement needs of Jewish Children’, Adoption & Fostering24:1, pp 40–46, 2000.
61.
Social Services Inspectorate, For Children's Sake: An SSI inspection of local authority adoption services, London: Department of Health, 1997.
62.
SokoloffB Z, ‘Antecedents of American adoption: the future of children’, Adoption3:1, pp 17–25, 1993.
TriseliotisJShiremanJHundlebyM, Adoption: Theory, policy and practice, London: Cassell, 1997.
65.
TriseliotisJ, ‘Intercountry adoption: global trade or global gift?’, Adoption & Fostering24:2, pp 45–54, 2000.
66.
TurnpennyP, ‘The dilemmas of sharing genetic information’, in McWhinnieASmithJ (eds), Current Human Dilemmas in Adoption, Dundee: University of Dundee, 1994.
67.
United States Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-25, No. 311, ‘Estimates of the population of the United States by single years of age, color, and sex: 1900 to 1959’; Series P-25, No. 519, ‘Estimates of the population of the United States by single Years of age, sex and race: 1 April 1960 to 1 July 1973’; Series P-25, No. 917, ‘Preliminary estimates of the population of the United States by single years of age, sex and race: 1970 to 1981’; Series P-25, No. 1130, ‘Population projections of the United States by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin: 1995 to 2050, 1998’.
United States Immigration and Nationalisation Services, Reported by Holt International Children's Service, International Adoption Statistics: Significant source countries of immigrant orphans 1985–1996, available online: [http://www.holtintl.org/insstats.html], January 2000.
70.
WatsonK, ‘Who cares if people are exploited by adoption?’, Decree1, pp 7–8, 1999.
71.
WolfsonE R, ‘The fee in social work: ethical dilemmas for practitioners’, Social Work44:3, pp 270–73, 1999.
