A group of 140 child molesters (59 participating in community-based sex offender treatment programs and 81 incarcerated child molesters) were compared on a range of psychological measures to a group of 81 nonoffenders. Child molesters were found to be significantly lower in self-esteem, higher on emotional loneliness and personal distress, and to show deficits in victim empathy. Further differences were found between high- and low-deviancy offenders in terms of assertiveness, perspective taking, cognitive distortions regarding children, and emotional congruence with children. General empathy did not appear to be directly related to empathy for one’s own victim and the presence of cognitive distortions was only significant in high-deviancy child molesters. Some victim-blaming attitudes and distorted thinking regarding children and sex were found in the nonoffender group.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abel, G. G., Becker, J. V., & Cunningham-Rathner, J. (1984). Complications, consent and cognitions in sex between children and adults. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 7, 89-103.
2.
Abel, G. G., Mittelman, M. S., & Becker, J. V. (1985). Sexual offenders: Results of assessment and recommendations for treatment. In M. H. Ben-Aron, S. J. Huckle, & C. D. Webster (Eds.), Clinical criminology: The assessment and treatment of criminal behavior (pp. 191-205). Toronto, Canada: M & M Graphic.
3.
Araji, S., & Finkelhor, D. (1986). A review of the research. In D. Finkelhor & Associates (Eds.), A sourcebook on child sexual abuse. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
4.
Battle, J. (1990). Culture-free self-esteem inventories for children and adults: 2. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
5.
Beckett, R. C. (1987). The children and sex questionnaire. (Available from Richard Beckett, Room FF39, The Oxford Clinic, Littlemore Health Centre, Sandford Rd., Littlemore, Oxford, OX4 4XN, England)
6.
Beckett, R. C. (1994). Cognitive-behavioural treatment of sex offenders. In T. Morrison, M. Erooga, & R. C. Beckett (Eds.), Sexual offending against children (pp. 80-101). London: Routledge.
7.
Beckett, R. C., & Fisher, D. (1994, November). Assessing victim empathy: A new measure. Paper presented at the 13th Annual Conference of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers, San Francisco.
8.
Beech, A. R. (1998). A psychometric typology of child abusers. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 42, 319-339.
9.
Beech, A. R., Fisher, D., & Beckett, R. C. (1999). An evaluation of the prison sex offender treatment programme (UK Home Office Occasional Report). (Available from Home Office Publications Unit, 50 Queen Anne’s Gate, London, SW1 9AT, England)
10.
Browne, A., & Finkelhor, D. (1986). Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of the research. Psychology Bulletin, 99, 66-77.
11.
Davis, M. H. (1980). A multi-dimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10, 85-85.
12.
Eldridge, H., & Wyre, R. (1998). The Lucy Faithfull Foundation residential program for sexual offenders. In W. L. Marshall, Y. M. Fernandez, S. M Hudson, & T. Ward (Eds.), Sourcebook of treatment programs for sexual offenders (pp. 79-92). New York: Plenum.
13.
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S.B.G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck personality questionnaire. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
14.
Finkelhor, D. (1984). Child sexual abuse: New theory and research. New York: Free Press.
15.
Fisher, D. (1994). Adult sex offenders: Who are they? Why and how do they do it? In T. Morrison, M. Erooga, & R. C. Beckett (Eds.), Sexual offending against children (pp. 1-24). London: Routledge.
16.
Fisher, D., & Mair, G. (1998). A review of classification schemes for sex offenders (Report prepared for the Scottish Office and the Home Office). London: HMSO.
17.
Garlick, Y., Marshall, W. L, & Thornton, D. (1996). Intimacy deficits and the attribution of blame among sexual offenders. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 1, 251-258.
18.
Greenwald, H. J., & Satow, Y. (1970). A short social desirability scale. Psychological Reports, 27, 131-135.
19.
Hayashino, D. S., Wurtele, S. K., & Klebe, K. J. (1995). Child molesters: An examination of cognitive factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10, 106-116.
20.
Henderson, M., & Furnham, A. (1983). Dimensions of assertiveness: Factor analysis of five assertion inventories. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 14, 223-231.
21.
Keltner, A. A., Marshall, P. G., & Marshall, W. L. (1981). Measurement and correlation of assertiveness and social fear in a prison population. Corrective and Social Psychiatry, 27, 41-47.
22.
Kline, P. (1986). A handbook of test construction. New York: Methuen.
23.
Knopp, F., Freeman-Longo, R., & Stevenson, W. F. (1992). National survey of juvenile and adult sex offender treatment programs and models. Orwell, VT: Safer Society Program.
24.
Marshall, W. L. (1989). Intimacy, loneliness and sexual offending. Behavior Research and Therapy, 17, 491-503.
25.
Marshall, W. L. (1997). The relationship between self-esteem and deviant sexual arousal in non- familial child molesters. Behavior Modification, 21, 86-96.
26.
Marshall, W. L., Anderson, D., & Champagne, F. (1996). Self-esteem and its relationship to sexual offending. Psychology, Crime and Law, 3, 81-106.
27.
Marshall, W. L., Barbaree, H. E., & Fernandez, Y. M. (1995). Some aspects of social competence in sexual offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 7, 113-127.
28.
Marshall, W. L., Champagne, F., Sturgeon, C., & Bryce, P. A. (1997). Increasing the self-esteem of child molesters. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 9, 321-333.
29.
Murphy, W. D. (1990). Assessment and modification of cognitive distortions in sex offenders. In W. L. Marshall, D. R. Laws, & H. E. Barbaree (Eds.), Handbook of sexual assault: Issues, theories, and treatment of the offender (pp. 331-342). New York: Plenum.
30.
Pithers, W. D. (1994). Process evaluation of a group therapy component designed to enhance sex offenders’ empathy for sexual abuse survivors. Behavior Research and Therapy, 32, 565-570.
31.
Pithers, W. D., Buell, M. M., Kashima, K. M., Cumming, G. F., & Beal, L. S. (1987). Precursors to sexual offences. Paper presented at the First Annual Meeting of the Association for the Behavioral Treatment of Sexual Aggressors. Newport, Oregon.
32.
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Cutrona, C. A. (1980). The revised UCLA loneliness scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 472-480.
33.
Salter, A. C. (1988). Treating child sex offenders and their victims: A practical guide. Sage Ltd.: London.
34.
Saunders, D. G. (1991). Procedures for adjusting self-reports of violence for social desirability bias. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 6, 336-344.
35.
Seidman, B., Marshall, W. L., Hudson, S. M., & Robertson, P. J. (1994). An examination of intimacy and loneliness in sex offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9, 518-534.
36.
Stermac, L. E., & Segal, Z. V. (1989). Adult sexual contact with children: An examination of cognitive factors. Behavior Therapy, 20, 573-584.
37.
Thornton, D. (1989). Self-esteem scale. Unpublished manuscript. (Available from Dr. D. Thornton, Offending Behaviour Programmes Unit, Room 725, Abell House, John Islip St., London, SW1P 4LH, England)
38.
Ward, T., Hudson, S. M., & France, K. G. (1993). Self-reported reasons for offending behavior in child molesters. Annals of Sex Research, 6, 139-148.
39.
Ward, T., Hudson, S. M., & Marshall, W. L. (1995). Cognitive and affective deficits in sex offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 7, 67-83.
40.
Wolf, S. (1984, September). A multifactor model of deviant sexuality. Paper presented at Third International Conference on Victimology, Lisbon.
