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Abstract

Many studies discuss the impact of music programs on prison inmates. However, few studies have investigated the impact of music programs on formerly incarcerated individuals (FIIs), and none of them have focused on the programs’ characteristics. This phenomenological study explores the characteristics of a music-based rehabilitation program for FIIs. Five FIIs and three staff members who participated in a group music program were interviewed. The following four themes emerged: Continuity—the importance of the FIIs’ previous positive acquaintance with the program while still being in prison. Egalitarian approach—the importance of the staff treating the FIIs with understanding, tolerance, non-judgmentalism, and the use of an eye-level approach. Cultural sensitivity—the staff members’ sensitivity to the FIIs’ different backgrounds to form a connection. Playfulness—the program’s ability to break free from a “fight-or-flight” mode and experience a counter mode of playfulness. The findings are discussed through the perspective of positive criminology.

Keywords

formerly incarcerated individuals music program rehabilitation positive criminology phenomenology

Introduction

Many formerly incarcerated individuals (FIIs) have nothing after having served their time and often must start from the very bottom of society (Bahr et al., 2005). Limited and insecure job opportunities, insufficient access to social connections and services, and the continued presence of criminal subcultures, may eventually lead to recidivism (Wang et al., 2014). Analysis of impediments to readjustment upon release points at the following factors: lack of secure and sustained employment, lack of stable housing, lack of education and work skills, lack of medical care, dysfunctional families, toxic and deviant friendships, on-going substance misuse, little if any financial resources, and mental illness (Davis et al., 2013). In addition, incarcerated individuals are forced to deal with negative public attitudes, stigma, and discrimination, all of which prevent them from successfully reintegrating into the community (Brooks et al., 2006; Davis et al., 2013; Hirschfield & Piquero, 2010; Manza et al., 2004; Pager, 2003; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).

The literature on music-based rehabilitation programs that focused on therapeutic and educational interventions during incarceration shows improvement in FIIs’ wellbeing (Bilby et al., 2013; Brewster, 2010; Cohen, 2007; De Viggiani et al., 2010; Harbert, 2010; Kougiali et al., 2018; Tuastad & O’Grady, 2013; Winder et al., 2015). Such studies were done in European countries such as the UK (Doxat-Pratt, 2021; Henley & Parks, 2020; Henley et al., 2012; Kyprianides & Easterbrook, 2020), the Netherlands (Hakvoort, 2002; Macfarlane et al., 2019), Norway (Gold et al., 2014; Gold et al., 2021; Hjørnevik & Waage, 2019; Tuastad & O’Grady, 2013), and other countries such as the US (Cohen, 2012), Australia (Tuastad & O’Grady, 2013), China (Chen et al., 2014), and Israel (Bensimon et al., 2015; Ze’evi et al., 2022). However, research on music-based rehabilitation programs after the release from prison is scarce (Bensimon, 2023; Bensimon & Gilboa, 2010; Tuastad & O’Grady, 2013). Moreover, the existing research does not focus on the characteristics of music-based rehabilitation programs for FIIs. The current study aims to fill this void by examining characteristics of a group music program in London from the perspective of its participants, FIIs, and staff members alike. Such an exploration may provide valuable information on how to improve future projects whose aim is to ease FIIs’ reentry into society.

Music-Based Rehabilitation Programs for Formerly Incarcerated Individuals

The bulk of research in the field of music-based rehabilitation programs for incarcerated individuals is done in prison. These programs enable prisoners to temporarily escape their current restricting environment and experience a sense of freedom, happiness, and hope (Bilby et al., 2013; Brewster, 2010; Cohen, 2007; De Viggiani et al., 2010; Harbert, 2010; Tuastad & O’Grady, 2013; Winder et al., 2015; for a qualitative meta-synthesis see Kougiali et al., 2018). Pratt (1990) argued that music can create an “enclave of autonomy,” an alternative psychological reality that can function as an imaginary “new life” within the existing reality. This imaginary reality may enable incarcerated individuals to mentally leave the prison, thus encouraging them to hope for a better future after serving their sentence. Based on reports of prisoners who participated in music programs while incarcerated, Kougiali et al. (2018) concluded that prisoners view these programs as “rhizomatic (i.e., non-hierarchical, multiple, complex and non-linear, with ceaseless and shifting connections, attractions, meanings, and influences) affective spaces” that can temporally and spatially ease the hardship of imprisonment. The music instructors’ non-authoritative and egalitarian approach enabled the development of socially safe spaces within the music groups and promoted autonomy and the development of an agentic self. Based on Maruna’s (2011) theory that successful symbolic reintegration rituals may lead to successful reentry to the community, Cohen (2019) argued that music activities in a prison environment are also a form of positive reintegration rituals that promote prosocial behaviors and facilitate a smoother reentry of returning citizens into the community.

Few empirical studies have examined music-based rehabilitation programs for FIIs. Bensimon and Gilboa (2010) examined the use of the Musical Presentation technique in a halfway open house rehabilitation program for FIIs. This is a technique in which people in a group setting portray themselves through musical pieces of their choice and receive feedback from their peers. Results show that this tool enhanced the participants’ sense of purpose in life. It served as a “time-out” from daily routine, enabling presenters to construct and reconstruct existential meanings of their lives, both individually and with the group. Tuastad and O’Grady (2013), who explored the experience of FIIs who joined Norwegian bands in rehearsals and performances, found that the music activities helped FIIs to momentarily free themselves from the harsh reality of the outside world, connect with their personal emotions and feel human amidst a dehumanizing social environment. Thus, music can be seen as an activity where FIIs can practice freedom and a hoped-for reality in juxtaposition with their present harsh reality. Bensimon (2023) examined the experience of FIIs and staff members in a group music program in London. The findings show that the program improved social bonding, facilitated a sense of hope and purpose, provided a sense of achievement, and facilitated a change of direction in life.

While the positive impact of music-based rehabilitation programs on FIIs has been examined, research on the characteristics of such programs is lacking. We did find one study examining characteristics of a FIIs’ rehabilitation program that did not use a musical approach. The study examined the characteristics of a rehabilitation program where the mentors were FIIs. In-depth interviews were conducted with eight mentors, yielding two main characteristics: first, the fact that the mentors themselves were reformed ex-offenders, enabled them to become role models for the mentees, and second, the voluntary client participation gave the mentees an experience of choice that increased their motivation to initiate change (Kavanagh & Borrill, 2013).

The Current Study

Due to unmet needs, most FIIs have a very difficult time in successfully reintegrating into society (Mears et al., 2008). Therefore, upon release from prison, it is imperative that FIIs receive the help they need for coping with the post-release challenges they encounter (Wolfer, 2019; Yahner et al., 2008). The current study is based on Bensimon (2023) research that has demonstrated the positive impact of a music-based rehabilitation program on its participants. The present research further examines its characteristics for the purpose of improving the efficacy of future programs designed for assisting FIIs upon reentry.

Method

Research Approach

The methodology employed in this research was based on the phenomenological approach. This approach focuses on how an experience relates to the individual and his or her narrative regarding that experience (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological studies focus on exploring the meaning and interpretations that research participants ascribe to a given phenomenon (Van Manen, 2014). This method is particularly suitable for the purpose of the present research which explores characteristics of a music-based reentry program by analyzing its meaning for the participants.

Participants: The Sounding Out Program for Formerly Incarcerated Individuals

The participants of this study took part in a music intervention program called The Sounding Out Program (SOP) of the Irene Taylor Trust (ITT), UK. The Trust’s basic assumption is that music can break down barriers and help incarcerated individuals and FIIs who have lived on the fringes of society to become valued members of the community (for further information see: https://irenetaylortrust.com). The SOP began in 2012, in response to a need and a desire to support formerly incarcerated men and women. Candidates are invited to an interview in which they receive information about the SOP and its requirements, and then they become part of the project. The dropout rate at this point is very low as relationships have already been forged in prison and both sides are committed to make it work.

The SOP consists of intensive week-long creative projects and performances, acoustic projects, training opportunities, and regular meet up and play sessions. One part of the program is a 5-day intensive music making workshop. In the workshop, they form a band together with professional musicians who serve as staff members and create original and innovative music. At the end of the workshop, FIIs and staff members get together and perform their music in front of an audience. The ITT remunerates the SOP participants with the understanding that they have work commitments, and that monetary compensation may help make the program feel like a professional engagement. The ITT staff maintains regular contact with participants during and after their time in the SOP to make them aware of projects and opportunities as they arise and support them through the program.

In this study, five of the participants were FIIs (hereinafter referred to as “participants”)—four males and one female, their age ranging from mid-twenties to mid-fifties. The offending histories of the participants were varied. However, all the participants were on license and had served custodial sentences of a minimum of three years. Two of the five had spent the previous 20 years periodically offending and returning to prison at regular and frequent intervals. At the time of participation in the SOP, none of the participants was employed or in the process of training or studying a profession, and all five were receiving state benefits. Three other participants (two males and one female) were ITT staff members (hereinafter referred to as “staff-participants”), their age ranging from mid-forties to fifties. Two of the staff-participants were male and served as professional musicians in the core project team. The third staff-participant was a female who served as the artistic director of the ITT. She has worked using music in criminal justice settings since 1984 and founded the ITT in 1995.

Procedure

The researcher contacted potential participants, requesting their cooperation. Details of the potential participants were received from the ITT. All the participants were interviewed five years after participating in the SOP. All interviews were audio-recorded and later transcribed. All the participants signed an informed consent form, which included their permission to be interviewed. The researcher assured the participants that their personal information would be safeguarded and that the final report would not include names or any other identifying details. Prior to the interviews, an ethics approval was received from the Ethics Review Board of Bar-Ilan University.

Data Collection and Analysis

Information was collected from both participants and staff-participants via semi-structured open-ended interviews (Cunningham et al., 2011). The interviews were based on the guided interview technique and included questions such as: What was the atmosphere like during the program?; Please describe the relationship between the FIIs and the staff members; What made the program a success, if at all?; How did you cope with challenges during the program, if there were any? The thematic analysis examined the data sentence-by-sentence, and often word-by-word, in order to identify main categories and subcategories emerging from the interviews (Guba & Lincoln, 1981).

Findings

The analysis of the interviews yielded six categories that can be seen as contributing characteristics to the success of the SOP. The first category—previous acquaintance—relates to the advantage of previous acquaintance between the participants and the staff-participants in a musical project that took place while the participants were still serving time in prison. The second—genuineness and authenticity—refers to the significance of the genuine and authentic atmosphere that was present throughout the creative process. The third—understanding and lack of judgment—relates to the staff-participants’ non-judgmental approach and their understanding of the participants’ hardships upon release. The fourth—eye-level approach—refers to the equal status interaction between participants and staff-participants in the SOP, creating a space in which everyone can learn from and be supported by others. The fifth—bridging cultural differences—relates to the staff-participants’ awareness of cultural differences between themselves and the participants and their creative ways of communication aimed to bridge those differences and forge a strong relationship with the participants. Finally, the sixth category—enjoyment and excitement—refers to the participants and staff-participants’ feelings of enjoyment and excitement during the creative interpersonal process and during the performance of the final musical product. These six categories will be explicated through a selection of exemplary quotes from the interviews. For confidentiality purposes, the names of the quoted interviewees will be represented by random capital letters.

Previous Acquaintance

The participants and staff-participants knew each other from a previous ITT program in which they had all partook, the Music in Prisons program. The purpose of that program was to have prisoners and musicians collaborate in writing original songs, forming a band, performing live, and recording an album (for further information see https://irenetaylortrust.com/what-we-do/our-projects). The participants’ positive experience with the previous program and its staff contributed to their sense of security and their willingness to join the SOP:

The big plus was that they were coming to a setup that was familiar to them. It was not just me they knew. They knew other musicians as well. So, when they came to work with us [upon release], they were very excited to get together again. [. . .] They were coming to participate in a process which was similar to one they had done before. They had been with us for five days [during the Music in Prisons project], writing five or six new songs, so it wasn’t like we were inviting them to do something completely new. There were aspects of the SOP program which were familiar to them and made them feel comfortable. (The Artistic Director of the ITT)

The participants were aware of the great advantage of the former acquaintance with the staff and the program and mentioned it as a factor that encouraged them to overcome their hesitation and participate in the SOP upon release:

I think it was a great idea to keep in touch with us after our release from prison, because – ok, you can work with people while they’re inside [prison] and you can help them get away from it all for five days. But what about after [release from prison]? The fact that I had already got to know the whole team during my time in prison made it very easy for me to join this project. (A, participant)

The previous acquaintance with the ITT activities gave participants a sense of familiarity and security, and promoted trust:

When I got out of prison, I was happy to contact the ITT. And so, I was excited to meet people I already knew and trusted. And I also knew more or less how the program worked so all that gave me a sense of security. (B, participant)

The findings also showed that the participants were not the only ones who were enthusiastic about the opportunity to meet again. The staff-participants were also happy and excited about the reunion:

I was really happy. I could now see those guys again [outside the prison] and work with them again. I knew their strengths. I knew they were very focused people. So all that really excited me. I was very eager to start the project. (C, staff-participant)

Genuineness and Authenticity

The staff-participants described the participants as sensitive to dishonesty and pretense, and emphasized the importance of a genuineness for the success of the program:

And if you’re genuine and open, people sense that. And that’s a really important thing when you work with people in prisons, you know, they know within seconds if you’re genuine or not. Once people realize that you’re who you are, that you’re being genuine and there’s no pretense – it’s fine. (D, staff-participant)

The participants, on their part, mentioned the SOP’s open and authentic atmosphere as contributing to their ability to connect with their inner self during the creative process:

We always learnt something about ourselves through the music that we hadn’t known before. It was because of the special atmosphere of the project. It was an open and authentic atmosphere of simply creating music together, and it was delightful. It was one of those moments when you can just sit and be who you are. (E, participant)

Understanding and Lack of Judgment

Understanding the participants’ hardships upon release enabled staff-participants to put up with problematic behaviors such as lateness to rehearsals:

As a rehabilitation organization, it was important to be understanding when they [the FIIs] had to sort out an issue with their family, their job or their living premises. That meant we had to be tolerant when they sometimes turned up late for a rehearsal. (The Artistic Director of the ITT).

Due to this non-judgmental approach, participants could occasionally behave inappropriately without feeling guilty about it. “E,” a participant in the program, was so impressed that she adopted the same attitude toward people that she herself supports:

It didn’t matter if I did right or wrong – I’ve never ever felt I did wrong – you know, because we were always told that there was no right and wrong. [. . .] If we were late or called to say we’d be late, X [The Artistic Director of the ITT] would say: ‘Okay, let’s get on with it, they are running late – but they can join us when they come’. At some point, they would come in and X would just say ‘Okay, join in’ and we would go on. [. . .] You never felt like – ‘Oh my God, I’m gonna be reprimanded’ – we never felt that. [. . .] And I think the kindness and understanding that we experienced gave me the strength to support other people and treat them the same way I was treated. (E, participant)

The non-judgmental approach also seemed to provide participants with an unrestricted mental space where they could freely explore their rehabilitation path:

We weren’t judged. There was no judgmental talk and it kind of allowed me to be more open with myself about future possibilities in life. It opened my eyes. (A, participant)

Eye-Level Approach

This category reflects the way the staff-participants’ viewed their status in relation to the participants. They described an eye-level approach, whereby all those who participated in the program could learn from and be supported by one another, staff-participants and participants alike. The artistic director described the experience as follows:

I don’t feel that we [staff-participants] are more important than others in this project. I mean, we give them [the participants] opportunities and they take them, so that’s probably the only imbalance here. [. . .] We don’t teach them. Once we get to work, it’s like doing something with someone rather than doing it for someone. [. . .] Although we are professional musicians, there are times when our brain tires, we make mistakes or encounter difficulties, and then we need help and support. So for me, each member of the group can be someone who supports or someone who needs support, and that’s how we get through the process. (The Artistic Director of the ITT).

Staff-participants explicitly mentioned the non-hierarchic, eye-level approach as the catalyst for realizing the participants’ superior proficiency at playing certain musical genres and instruments. The staff-participants learnt to appreciate the participants’ musical expertise and even asked to learn from them new musical genres and techniques:

We strive to create an eye-level, non-hierarchic dynamic among all members of the band. I think that a major achievement of the process was that everyone participated in creating the musical feel, the sound and the texture. [. . .] I don’t have much experience with genres like reggae, funk, hip-hop, whatever. But these guys are so with it, and they have much better awareness and skill to determine what feels right and what sounds good, much faster than I can. So, I’m constantly learning from them about these things. [. . .] They’re much more, I mean a hundred times more, proficient in playing this kind of music than I am, because musically, I don’t come from that world. When [participant] ‘B’ plays the drums, and the other guy plays the bass, it’s just incredible. It’s just – it’s so powerful and just amazing. (D, staff-participant)

Although staff-participants joined the project as professional musicians who were supposed to guide the participants, by the end of the process, they felt like they had joined the project to learn and not just instruct. They felt they had learnt about the participants’ music, about themselves and about life:

Being in that room with those people, I think we were all kind of learning. ‘D’ [a staff-participant] was learning; and X [The Artistic Director of the ITT] was learning; and I was learning – we all learnt about each other, about the music. I learnt about them, learnt about myself through them, learnt about how to make things work, how to focus. [. . .] Working with those people has taught me so much about life – not just music, just life. (C, staff-participant)

Bridging Cultural Differences

Staff-participants experienced cultural differences between them and the participants, for example in working habits, language and use of music terminology. The staff-participants had to change their mindset and exercise humility, openness, and good will, so they could truly know the participants, bridge the gap and forge a bond:

From the beginning of the program, the diverse backgrounds were a massive challenge. We – me and most of the staff – you know, white, middle-class ‘snowflakes’ as they call us, we work with folks who are from very different backgrounds, and that’s just the way it is, you know. So, I’ve had to learn a lot along the way about just staying humble, and hopefully creating an atmosphere of humility and openness, and – yeah, telling them: ‘I’m not sure I understand everything you’re s saying or where you’re coming from’ – and being open about that. Like saying: ‘It’s not like where I’m from mate, you know, but tell me and we’ll find a way through it’, and usually it’s okay. (D, staff-participant)

The cultural differences created situations in which staff-participants had to find the fine line between encouraging participants to meet musical challenges and pushing them beyond their ability. “D” described his difficulty in determining the participants’ limits of ability:

I try to challenge people in a professional musical way, just to move them forward, not too hard, but you know, finding a way to do that. I try to be aware of people’s limitations and not push them too hard. [. . .] There can be technical limitations, emotional limitations, you know. And it did happen that I pushed someone a bit too hard and I kind of lost her for a while, and I felt horrible. You must develop the knack to know when enough is enough. (D, staff-participant)

For staff-participants, bridging the cultural gap also meant dropping professional jargon and finding alternative ways of communication to build a close relationship with the participants:

We just had to find ways of conveying technical music terminology. You don’t necessarily have to talk about bars and notes. [. . .] In one case, a singer had problems finding the right pitch and singing in tune. So, we couldn’t say things like: ‘Oh, it’s a bit flat, it’s a bit sharp..’. We had to find a different way to say it. So, we said: ‘It’s a bit low’. We had to find a certain way which would correct the singing, or we would demonstrate how the song should be sung. (C, staff-participant)

One of the common frustrating situations for the participants was finding the exact key of the song or keeping in tempo. It often required hard work. Despite the frustration, staff-participants found creative ways to help participants overcome their difficulties, as noted by participant “E”:

I think frustration probably kicked in at times when you honestly couldn’t get the key, and everybody was playing in key and you are like: ‘I didn’t get it! I can’t get it! Play it again.’ And they played it over and over and over again until finally the penny dropped and you got it and you like shout ‘Yay!’ And then we move on! (E, participant)

Enjoyment and Excitement

Staff-participants described the creative process as embarking on an adventure and feeling the enjoyment and excitement of the unknown:

It was simply a great project with great people. It was a real joy. I really enjoyed those moments. There was so much to be excited about, and so many things were moving forward. We didn’t quite know what was gonna happen, but we knew it was gonna be exciting. It was gonna be good. So, we had lots to be excited about. (C, staff-participant)

It was not only the final musical product that delighted the staff-participants, but also, and perhaps most importantly, it was the creative interpersonal process that gave them a thrill:

It could be a new song, just a line, just her [the participant] singing one line, and we had to turn it into a composition. But look, we’ve spent many years doing that kind of thing. So, we find a fitting harmony, usually on the piano, decide on a key, create a harmonic progression, figure out the chords, and then ‘F’ [a participant] finds the chords on the guitar, and the bass player – he’ll find the bass line. Yeah, it just builds up one step at a time. It’s the heart of the process that’s so exciting. (D, staff-participant)

Similarly, participants described the creative process as getting into an amazing and exciting musical groove:

Creating music means catching the vibration, like a surfer on a wave – you know what I mean? Just like a surfer catches a wave – a musician catches a vibration and rides it. And it feels good, man, it does, especially if you are the one creating and writing good stuff. (F, participant)

Those were five days of excitement, five days of really dedicating ourselves to the project. (E, participant)

Discussion

The SOP has already been found to have a positive influence on its participants (Bensimon, 2023). The current study further researched the SOP and examined its characteristics in order to obtain information on how to improve the efficacy of future rehabilitation programs for FIIs. The analysis of the interviews yielded six categories that may be seen as contributing to the success of the SOP: previous acquaintance, genuineness and authenticity, understanding and lack of judgment, eye-level approach, bridging cultural differences, and enjoyment and excitement. Further examination of the six categories yielded four themes. The first theme—continuity—relates to the importance of the FIIs’ previous positive acquaintance with an ITT program and its staff while still incarcerated. This created trust in ITT activities and made it easier for FIIs to join ITT’s SOP program upon release. The second theme—egalitarian approach—reflects the staff-participants’ humane attitude which was characterized by understanding, tolerance, non-judgmental treatment, and an eye-level approach. This approach enabled participants to freely explore their rehabilitation path. The third theme—cultural sensitivity—emphasizes the staff-participants’ sensitivity toward participants’ diverse backgrounds in an effort to form a connection despite the cultural differences. Finally, the fourth theme—playfulness—refers to the participants’ ability to break free from the survival mode of “fight-or-flight” and experience a counter mode of playfulness by getting into a musical groove and experiencing feelings of enjoyment and excitement.

Continuity

Most incarcerated individuals return to the community. For example, Travis (2005) found that 95% of inmates in the US eventually reintegrate into society. Successful reentry requires ensuring their well-being and establishing continuous care and services from prison to community. This includes physical, mental, and emotional health (Woods et al., 2013), as well as education if needed (Erisman, 2015). The present study shows how maintaining continuity through music can provide social and emotional support. The prior positive acquaintance of participants with the ITT activities and staff while still in prison, through the Music in Prisons project, created familiarity and trust in the ITT upon release. The knowledge that familiar people were waiting excitedly to meet and continue creating music together helped the participants achieve a much quicker and easier reentry. These findings are significant for achieving successful reintegration. FIIs accrue many community responsibilities upon release such as employment and family. These responsibilities may deter them from attending programs that may facilitate their social reintegration. Therefore, achieving continuity through prior acquaintance may convince FIIs to voluntarily participate in rehabilitation programs once they are released (Wolfer, 2019).

According to Erikson (1968), individuals must acquire a stable set of norms, values, and commitments to guide them in their day-to-day activities. The repeated experiences resulting from such stability eventually form a person’s identity. Erikson claimed that in order to form a strong and cohesive identity, an individual must develop a subjective sense of sameness in a world of constant change and a sense of continuity within the self, whereby different “selves” are synthesized into one continuous self. Since sameness and continuity are crucial for developing a strong and cohesive identity, reentry into the community after being incarcerated for a length of time may negatively affect FIIs’ subjective sense of sameness and continuity. This is in line with findings showing that many FIIs are forced to deal with a variety of existential challenges that may develop into an identity crisis (McKendy & Ricciardelli, 2021). In light of Erikson’s theory, we may assume that the participants’ experience of continuity, from participating in the Music in Prisons program to participating in the SOP, may have helped them maintain a subjective sense of sameness and continuity while struggling with reentry challenges.

Egalitarian Approach

FIIs frequently contend with social stigmas, as their criminal record often follows them long after release (Mulch, 2009). Coping with stigmas is frustrating and often, the efforts that FIIs invest in fighting them are sometimes so great that they feel as if they are serving an additional sentence every time they are required to disclose their past (such as on job applications; Wehrman, 2011). Inadequate education is common among FIIs and is often associated with stigmas such as trust issues and laziness (Meyer, 2011). The judicial and welfare policies regarding FIIs place an irredeemable mark on their lives, limit their opportunities for rehabilitation, and impede full reintegration into society (Kennington, 2013). Thus, FIIs suffer a form of structural stigma, in which social standards, cultural norms, and institutional policies limit their opportunities and resources, and have a negative impact on their well-being (Hatzenbuehler et al., 2013).

In light of the above research, using an egalitarian approach with FIIs may offer them a better prospect for successful reintegration. The current findings indicate that this approach was implemented in the SOP: the staff-participants showed non-judgmental understanding, tolerance, and acceptance toward the participants, thus providing them with an inner mental space to freely explore their rehabilitation path. In addition, as professional musicians, staff-participants adopted an eye-level approach by greatly appreciating the FIIs’ musical abilities and expressing desire to learn from them new genres. The positive impact of taking an egalitarian approach with prisoners was also shown in a qualitative meta-synthesis, indicating that such an approach is characteristic of music instructors who create socially safe spaces within music groups, promote autonomy, and the encourage conceptualization of an agentic self (Kougiali et al., 2018).

Cultural Sensitivity

Zhu (2011) defined cultural sensitivity as “the quality of being aware of and accepting of other cultures.” (p. 118). Cultural awareness is important as differences between cultures can affect relationships and communication. Cultural sensitivity was found lacking in prison interventions (Jones et al., 2013), since they are manual-based and do not take into account individual differences (Coates, 2016). Cultural sensitivity is critical for interventions with prisoners and FIIs since ethnic minorities are often over-represented in these settings (Allen & Dempsey, 2016). Therefore, understanding an individual’s cultural background can help provide better insight into his or her personality (Garratt, 2004).

The current findings support the literature and stress the importance of a culturally sensitive approach. Staff-participants exercised humility, openness, and good will to learn about the participants and their music, bridge the cultural gap, and form a connection. They used non-professional music terminology that reflected their efforts to genuinely know the participants. The ability of a music intervention to bridge cultural differences and connect individuals from both sides of social, political, and ethnic conflicts has already been shown. It could occur during intense moment of protest (Bensimon, 2009) or in a musical-communal project for enhancing communication among students of multi-cultural origin (Gilboa et al., 2009). Music is a non-verbal way of communication, so it is often used as a symbol of culture (Garratt, 2004). Therefore, it is not surprising that music serves as a non-threatening medium that can promote cultural sensitivity, thereby enhancing therapeutic alliance and potentially improving the efficacy of intervention programs in prison (Dickie-Johnson & Meek, 2020).

Playfulness

Prison can be extremely stressful for inmates due to the numerous pains of imprisonment (Crewe, 2011) and the little control they have over their environment (Hulley et al., 2011). Noise, which is the presence of unwanted sound (Devlin & Arneill, 2003), is not just an annoyance. It is also potentially harmful to health (Andringa & Lanser, 2013). The prison environment is full of constant harsh, annoying, and startling sounds such as beeps and alarms, banging, and shouting. Such sounds set the mind in a stressful “fight-or-flight” mode which forces constant alertness and attentiveness (Moran, 2019). Stress in prison is present also due to the makeup of the inmate population who, for the most part, have already suffered traumatic experiences prior to incarceration (Goff et al., 2007). Living in prison is a matter of physical, mental, and emotional survival and was thus found to elevate levels of anxiety (López-Pérez et al., 2018) and anger (Unver et al., 2013).

Living in a constant survival mode and facing stressful challenges, incarcerated individuals both in and out of prison need a counter measure to help them move forward toward rehabilitation. According to the present findings, the SOP created a secure space for the FIIs to exercise playfulness. Both FIIs and staff members participating in the SOP stated that getting into a musical groove gave them a great feeling of enjoyment and excitement. Playfulness is described as a state of mind (Guitard et al., 2005) that typically occurs in secure, stress-free environments (Bateson, 2015). It is defined as an internal predisposition characterized by creativity, curiosity, pleasure, sense of humor, spontaneity, and tolerance for unexpected events. It is important for good health since it contributes to joy, satisfaction, happiness, and well-being, and is associated with the absence of stress and tension (Guitard et al., 2005; Milteer et al., 2012). When we play music, compose songs or improvise, we experience a state of playfulness (Bensimon, 2020) because it is “inventive, spontaneous, extemporaneous, resourceful, and involves creating and playing simultaneously” (Bruscia, 1987, p. 5).

Conclusions

The characteristics found in this study point to the importance of creating connections at different levels. Maintaining continuity in the transition from imprisonment to life in the community enabled a quick and easy connection to the SOP. The egalitarian and culturally sensitive approach adopted by staff-participants created a connection among all participants and facilitated a mutual learning experience within a cohesive group. Finally, entering a playful space while intensely engaging in music enabled FIIs to disconnect from their daily stressful space of “fight or flight” and experience beneficial community-based activities on their journey back to society.

The above characteristics share a positive approach to offenders during their rehabilitation process and thus can be understood in light of the positive criminology perspective. This perspective, which was introduced by Ronel and colleagues (Ronel & Elisha, 2011; Ronel & Segev, 2014), focuses on individuals’ encounters with forces and influences that are experienced as positive, thus distancing them from deviance and crime. Positive experiences are created by means of both formal and informal therapy programs and interventions. Their aim is to prevent recidivism by focusing on positive social elements such as exposure to goodness, social acceptance, and reintegration. The SOP’s characteristics can serve as a model for implementing the positive criminology perspective in rehabilitation programs for FIIs. This view is supported by Elisha et al.’s (2013) study, which shows that exposing imprisoned sex offenders to humane and social acceptance of meaningful agents brings about positive changes during imprisonment. In addition, a recent book describes currently used positive criminological approaches that could help prevent future sexual abuse and promote reintegration of sex-offenders back into the community (Kewley et al., 2021).

The current study has several limitations. First, the participants were all interviewed five years after participating in the SOP, so they may have forgotten some details of their experiences. However, while this may be seen as a weakness of methodology, the fact that five years after the end of the SOP, the participants still remembered their feelings of belonging and bonding, shows the significance and strong influence of the program on their lives. Future studies should also examine characteristics during and immediately after the end of a such programs to determine their immediate influence on FIIs’ successful reentry. Second, this study examined characteristics regarding only one group that participated in the program. Future studies should conduct more comprehensive qualitative research in which more groups and programs will be examined. Third, this study is not gender balanced as it included only two women (one participant and one staff-participant). Since research has shown gender differences in music processing (Koelsch et al., 2003) and in rehabilitation needs upon release (Gueta & Chen, 2019), future studies should use a more gender balanced sample. Finally, the relative contribution of each characteristic is unknown. Quantitative measures should be developed for music programs that operate in and out of prison, in order to determine the relative weight of each characteristic and thus improve the efficacy of future music-based rehabilitation programs for FIIs.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Thanks are given to the Irene Taylor Trust for opening the door for research as well as to the study participants for sharing their personal meaningful experiences.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Moshe Bensimon

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Creating a Benevolent World: Exploration of a Music-Based Rehabilitation Program for Formerly Incarcerated Individuals

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Music-Based Rehabilitation Programs for Formerly Incarcerated Individuals

The Current Study

Method

Research Approach

Participants: The Sounding Out Program for Formerly Incarcerated Individuals

Procedure

Data Collection and Analysis

Findings

Previous Acquaintance

Genuineness and Authenticity

Understanding and Lack of Judgment

Eye-Level Approach

Bridging Cultural Differences

Enjoyment and Excitement

Discussion

Continuity

Egalitarian Approach

Cultural Sensitivity

Playfulness

Conclusions

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iD

References