The authors conducted a study of recidivism of 480 male graduates, aged 16 to 40 years, of a boot camp in the South. Discriminant analysis was used to determine what factors discriminated between three outcomes in a 3-year follow-up: (a) nonrecidivists, (b) recidivists who had committed additional crime after graduation from boot camp, and (c) parole violators. Analyses indicated that present age, age when unlawful behavior began, incarceration as a juvenile, several personality deficits, peer influence, and perceptions of boot camp merely as an expedient avenue to release discriminated between recidivists and the other two groups. Self-esteem, self-efficacy, resilience, expectations of future success, and favorable perceptions of various aspects of the boot camp experience distinguished nonrecidivists from others. Practice and policy implications of these findings are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abnernathy, T. J., Massad, L., & Romano-Dwyer, L. (1995). The relationshipbetween smoking and self-esteem. Adolescence, 30, 899-907.
2.
Agnew, R. (1995). Testing the leading crime theories: An alternative strategy focusing on motivational processes. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 32, 363-399.
3.
Akers, R. L. (2000). Criminological theories: Introduction and evaluation(3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Roxbury.
4.
Anderson, J. F., Dyson, L., & Burns, J. C. (1999). Boot camps: An intermediate sanction. New York: University Press of America.
5.
Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (1998). The psychology of criminal conduct(2nd ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.
6.
Aroian, K. J.,& Norris, A. E. (2000). Resilience, stress, and depression among Russian immigrants to Israel. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 22, 54-67.
7.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman & Co.
8.
Benda, B. B. (1999). Testing the problem syndrome among young males in boot camp: Use of theoretical elaboration with reciprocal relationships. Social Work Research, 23, 28-41.
9.
Benda, B. B., Corwyn, R. F., & Toombs, N. J. (2001). From adolescent “serious offender” to adult felon: Apredictive study of offense progression. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 32, 79-106.
10.
Benda, B. B., Corwyn, R. F.,& Toombs, N. J. (in press). Recidivism among adolescent serious offenders: Prediction of entry into the correctional system. Criminal Justice and Behavior.
11.
Benda, B. B. & Tollett, C. L. (1999). A study of recidivism of serious and persistent offenders among adolescents. Journal of Criminal Justice, 27, 111-126.
12.
Benda, B. B., & Toombs, N. J. (1999). Testing theoretical models with reciprocal effects of drug use among boot camp participants using a developmental perspective. Journal of Social Service Research, 26, 1-35.
13.
Benda, B. B., Toombs, NJ.,& Whiteside, L. (1996). Recidivism among boot campgraduates: Acomparison of drug offenders and other offenders. Journal of Criminal Justice, 24, 241-254.
14.
Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., Roth, J. A.,& Visher, C. A. (Eds.) (1986). Criminal careers and career criminals(Vol. 1). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
15.
Bonta, J. (1996). Risk-needs assessment and treatment. In A. Harland (Ed.), Choosing correctional options that work: Defining the demand and evaluating the supply(pp. 18-68). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
16.
Brewer, D. D., Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F.,& Neckerman, H. J. (1995). Preventing serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offending: Areviewof evaluations of selected strategies in childhood, adolescence, and the community. In J. C. Howell, B. Krisberg, J. D. Hawkins, & J. J. Wilson (Eds.), Sourcebook on serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders(pp. 61-141). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
17.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
18.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22, 723-735.
19.
Burton, V., Marquart, J., Cuvelier, S., Alarid, L., & Hunter, R. (1993). A study of attitudinal change among boot camp participants. Federal Probation, 57, 46-52.
20.
Byrne, J. M., Lurigio, A. J., & Petersilia, J. (Eds.) (1992). Smart sentencing: The emergence of intermediate sanctions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
21.
Camp, D. D. (1991). Shock incarceration in Georgia: An analysis of task performance and training needs among corrections officers. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 16, 153-176.
22.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and internal structure of tests. Psychometrica, 16, 297-334.
23.
Cronin, R. C. (1994). Boot camps for adult and juvenile offenders: Overviewand update. Washington, DC: Department of Justice.
24.
Empey, L. T., Stafford, M. C.,& Hay, C. H. (1999). American delinquency: Its meaning and construction(4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
25.
Freund, R. J.,& Wilson, W. J. (1998). Regression analysis: Statistical modeling of a response variable. New York: Academic Press.
26.
Gendreau, P. (1996). Offender rehabilitation: What we knowand what needs to be done. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 23, 144-161.
27.
Gendreau, P., Little, T.,& Goggin, C. (1996). Ameta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: What works! Criminology, 34, 575-607.
28.
Gottfredson, D. M., & Tonry, M. (Eds.). (1987). Prediction and classification: Criminal justice decision making. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
29.
Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
30.
Gover, A. R., MacKenzie, D. L.,& Armstrong, G. S. (2000). Importation and deprivation explanations of juveniles’ adjustment to correctional facilities. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 44, 450-465.
31.
Gutman, L. M., & Midgley, C. (2000). The role of protective factors in supporting the academic achievement of poor African American students during the middle school transition. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 223-248.
32.
Hanson, R. K., & Harris, A.R.J. (2000). Where should we intervene? Dynamic predictors of sexual offense recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 6-35.
33.
Harland, A. T. (Ed.). (1996). Choosing correctional options that work. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
34.
Hawkins, J. D., Arthur, M. W.,& Catalano, R. F. (1995). Preventing substance abuse. In M.Toney& D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Building a safer society: Strategic approaches to crime prevention: Vol. 19. Crime and justice: A review of research(pp. 343-427). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
35.
Hill, K. G., Howell, J. C., Hawkins, J. D.,& Battin, S. R. (1999). Childhood risk factors for adolescent gang membership: Results from the Seattle Social Development Project. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 36, 300-322.
36.
Hoge, R. D. (1999). An expanded role for psychological assessments in juvenile justice systems. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 26, 251-266.
37.
Hudley, C. C. (1994). The reduction of childhood aggression using the brainpower program. In M. Furlong& D. Smith (Eds.), Anger, hostility, and aggression: Assessment, prevention, and intervention strategies for youth(pp. 313-344). Brandon, VT: Clinical Psychology Publishing.
38.
Hudson, W. W. (1992). The WALMYR assessment scales scoring manual. Tempe, AZ: WALMYR.
39.
Jastak, S. (1993). Wide Range Achievement Test(Rev. ed.). Wilmington, DE: Jastak Associates Inc.
40.
Jesness, C. F. (1991a). Classifying juvenile offenders: The sequential I-level classification manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
41.
Jesness, C. F. (1991b). The Jesness Inventory(Rev. ed.). North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
42.
Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. L. (1977). Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth. New York: Academic Press.
43.
Jones, J. (1996). Risk prediction in criminal justice. In A. T. Harland (Ed.), Choosing correctional options that work(pp. 33-68). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
44.
Klecka, W. R. (1980). Discriminant analysis. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
45.
Kroner, D. G.,& Loza, W. (2001). Evidence for the efficacy of self-report in predicting nonviolent and violent criminal recidivism. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 168-177.
46.
Loza, W., Dhaliwal, G., Kroner, D. G., & Loza-Fanous, A. (2000). Reliability, construct, and concurrent validities of the self-appraisal questionnaire: Atool for assessing violent and nonviolent recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 356-374.
47.
Loza, W., & Loza-Fanous, A. (2001). The effectiveness of the self-appraisal questionnaire in predicting offenders’ postrelease outcome: A comparison study. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 105-121.
48.
Lutze, F. E. (1996). Are shock incarceration programs more rehabilitative than traditional prisons? A survey of inmates. Justice Quarterly, 15, 547-566.
49.
MacKenzie, D. L. (1997). Criminal justice and crime prevention. In L. W. Sherman, D. Gottfredson, L. M. MacKenzie, J. Eck, P. Reuter, & S. Bushway (Eds.), Preventing crime: What works, what doesn’t, what’s promising(pp. 9-75). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
50.
MacKenzie, D. L., Brame, R., McDowall, D.,& Souryal, C. (1995). Boot campp risons and recidivism in eight states. Criminology, 33, 327-357.
51.
MacKenzie, D. L., & Parent, D. (1991). Shock incarceration and prison crowding in Louisiana. Journal of Criminal Justice, 19, 225-237.
52.
MacKenzie, D. L., & Piquero, A. (1994). The impact of shock incarceration programs on prison crowding. Crime & Delinquency, 40, 222-249.
53.
MacKenzie, D. L., & Shaw, J. W. (1990). Inmate adjustment and change during shock incarceration: The impact of correctional boot camp programs. Justice Quarterly, 7, 125-150.
54.
MacKenzie, D. L.,& Souryal, C. (1995). Inmates’attitude change during incarceration: Acomparison of boot camp with traditional prison. Justice Quarterly, 12, 324-353.
55.
Maddox, S. M., Mercandante, J. E., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. W. (1982). The selfefficacy scale: Construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51, 663-671.
56.
Maltz, M. (1984). Recidivism. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
57.
McCorkle, R. (1995). Correctional boot camps and change in attitude: Is all this shouting necessary? A research note. Justice Quarterly, 12, 365-375.
58.
Morris, N., & Tonry, M. (1990). Between prison and probation: Intermediate punishments in a rational sentencing system. New York: Oxford University Press.
59.
Palmer, T. (1992). The re-emergence of correctional intervention. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
60.
Piquero, A. R., Blumstein, A., Brame, R., Haapanen, R., Haapanen, R., Mulvey, E. P., Nagin, D. S. (2001). Assessing the impact of exposure time and incapacitation on longitudinal trajectories of criminal offending. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16, 54-74.
61.
Scheier, L. M., Botvin, G. J., Griffin. K. W.,& Diaz, T. (2000). Dynamic growth models of self-esteem and adolescent alcohol use. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 20, 178-209.
62.
Sherman, L. W., Gottfredson, D., MacKenzie, D. L., Eck, J., Reuter, P., & Bushway, S. (Eds.). 1997. Preventing crime: What works, what doesn’t, what’s promising. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
63.
Toch, H. 1977. Living in prison: The ecology of survival. New York: Free Press.
64.
Uggen, C. (2000). Work as a turning point in the life course of criminals: A duration model of age, employment, and recidivism. American Sociological Review, 65, 529-546.
65.
Vega, W. A., Apospori, E., Gil, A. G., Zimmerman, R. S., & Warheit, G. J. (1996). A replication and elaboration of the esteem-enhancement model. Psychiatry, 59, 128-144.
66.
Wills, T. A. (1994). Self-esteem and perceived control in adolescent substance use: Comparative tests in concurrent and prospective analyses. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 8, 223-234.
67.
Zhang, S. X. (1998). In search of hopeful glimpses: A critique of research strategies in current boot camp evaluation. Crime & Delinquency, 44, 314-334.
