The Rise of Black Consciousness in South Africa

By the end of April 1973, it was officially estimated that 61,000 Black workers had participated in strike actions over the recent months in spite of this constituting a criminal offence.

On South African students politics see, H.W. van der Merwe and David Welsh (eds.), Student Perspectives on South Africa (Cape Town, Philip, 1972); and for the history of NUSAS, also M. Legassick and J. Shingler , 'South Africa', in D. Emmerson (ed.), Students and Politics in Developing Nations ( London, Pall Mall, 1968), pp. 103-45. For the official attitude see also the recent report of the 'Schlebusch Commission' and its controversial reception.

See Kogila Adam , 'Dialectic of Higher Education for the Colonized: The Case of Non-White universities in South Africa', in Heribert Adam (ed.), South A frica: Sociological Perspectives ( London, Oxford University Press, 1971), pp. 197-213.

E.G. Cohen , 'Interracial Interaction Disability', Human Relations (Vol. 25, February 1972), pp. 9-24.

See J, Berger, M. Zelditch, Jr., and B. Anderson (eds.), Sociological Theories in Progress (Boston , Houghton Mifflin, 1966), pp. 29-46. Also E.G. Cohen and Susan S. Roper , 'Modification of Interracial Interaction Disability', American Sociological Review (Vol. 37, December 1972), pp. 643-57.

On liberation as a goal of Black Consciousness, see particularly Bennie A. Khoapa , 'Black Consciousness', South African Outlook (June/July 1972), pp. 100-2.

Robert Blauner , Racial Oppression in America (New York, Harper & Row, 1972), p. 119.

Steve Biko , 'Black Consciousness and the Quest for a True Humanity', in Mokgethi Motlhabi (ed.) Essays on Black Theology (Johannesburg, University Christian Movement, 1972), p. 25. This publication was soon banned in South African but has been published in Britain by C. Hurst.

A good example is Chief Gatshe Buthelezi addressing an American University audience on 'The Past and Future of the Zulu People' and elaborating with obvious ease: and satisfaction on the successful battles of heroes in his lineage. See Munger Africana Library No. 4., California Institute of Technology, Pasadena.

Amilcar Cabral , 'Identity and Dignity in Struggle', speech at Lincoln University , in Southern Africa (Vol. V, November 1972), pp. 4-8.

Fatima Meer , 'African Nationalism — some Inhibiting Factors', in Heribert Adam (ed.) South Africa: Sociological Perspectives (London, Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 145.

Biko , op. cit, p. 27.

SASO leaflet , 'Towards Realising Ourselves', undated and without author attribution.

Donald Reeves , Newsweek (9 April 1973), p. 28.

Strini Moodley , 'Black Consciousness, the black arrist and the emerging black culture', SASO Newsletter (May/June 1972), pp. 18-20.

Biko , op. cit, p. 21.

Cabral , op. cit, p. 5.

For an insightful analysis of this topic see George Devos , 'Social Stratification and Ethnic Pluralism: an Overview from the Perspective of Psychological Anthropology', Race (Vol. XIII, No. 4, April 1972), pp. 435-60.

It is symptomatic for the South African domestic debate how both Whites and Blacks are preoccupied with labels at the expense of the real issues. Thus the South African Institute of Race Relations asked the public to search for a more appropriate name for the country's subordinate castes before deciding to use the term Black, as did the Rand Daily Mail in 1972, while the 'Progressive Party' resolved after an elaborate debate to use only the group names: African, Coloured, Indian. SASO delegates continued in the same vein by evicting journalists whose papers continued to use the term non-white. A glance at the fate of 'Negroes' in America would have been useful.

Nadine Gordimer , 'White Proctorship and Black Disinvolvement' , Reality (Novem ber 1971), pp. 14-6.

'Towards Realising Ourselves'.

Richard Turner , 'Black Consciousness and White Liberals', Reality (July 1972), p. 20. Turner, too, has been banned.

Biko , op. cit, p. 21.

Jerry Modisane , SASO Newsletter (May/June 1972 ), p. 17.

Khoapa , op. cit, p. 102.

SASO Manifesto, Point 5.

Adam Small , 'Blackness versus Nihilism', in Essays on Black Theology, p. 15.

F.J. van Wyk , 'Black Consciousness — The Institute's Position as I see it', RR 120/ 72, (mimeographed) Johannesburg (15 December 1972), p. 3.

See the statement on 'The Nature and Aims of the S.A. Institute of Race Relations', Annual Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1972, last page.

Black Consciousness, A Report on a seminar held by the Cape Western Region of the South African Institute of Race Relations, RR 64/72 (mimeographed).

J.H.T. Mills, a retired civil servant in the Transksei, as reported in Rand Daily Mail (31 August 1972).

Khoapa , op. cit, p. 101.

Blauner , op. cit, p. 118.

Khoapa , cp. cit

Ibid.

Biko , op. cit, p. 26.

Department of Statistics, as quoted in The Star, Air Mail Edition (23 December 1972), p. 6. Excluded are figures from Railways, Harbours, and Post Office employees.

Fatima Meer , 'The Natal Indian Congress', Reality (July 1972), pp. 5-6.

Edward K. Steinhart , 'White Student Protests in South Africa: The Privileged Fight for their Rights', Africa Today (Vol. 19, No. 3, Summer 1972), p. 50.

Natal Mercury (29 May 1972).

Donald L. Horowitz , 'Multiracial Politics in the New States: Toward a Theory of Conflict', in Robert J. Jackson and Michael B. Stein , Issues in Comparative Politics (New York, St. Martin's Press, 1971), p. 166.

Die Transvaler (4 September 1972).

Meer , op. cit, p. 145.

Sunday Times (2.July 1972); Star (3 July 1972).