The Emergence of Negro Higher Education in America,A Review

The many early histories of American higher education may be found cited in the standard bibliographies. Among the more recent ones are: Richard Hofstadter and C. D. Hardy, The Development and Scope of Higher Education in the United States (New York, 1952);

Robert J. Havighurst , American Higher Education in the 1960s (Columbus, Ohio , 1960);

Richard Hofstadtcr and Wilson Smith , American Higher Education: A Documentary History (2 vols., Chicago, 1961);

T.R. McConnell , A General Pattern for American Public Higher Education ( New York, 1962);

William C. DeVane , Higher Education in Twentieth-Century America (Cambridge, Mass., 1965);

and Logan Wilson, ed., Emerging Patterns in American Higher Education (Washington, D.C., 1965).

The sociological study is Nevitt Sanford, ed. The American College, A Psychological and Sociological Interpretation of the Higher Learning (New York, 1962).

Other special studies include: Richard Hofstadter and W. P. Metzger, The Development of Academic Freedom in the United States (New York, 1955);

Malcolm Moos and Francis E. Rourke , The Campus and the State ( Baltimore, 1959);

Lyman A. Gienny , Autonomy of Public Colleges (New York, 1959);

Seymour E. Harris, ed., Higher Education in the United States: The Economic Problems (Cambridge, Mass., 1960);

William K. Selden , Accreditation (New York, 1960);

Francis C. Rosecrace , The American College and Its Teachers (New York , 1962);

E.G. Williamson and John L. Cowan , The American Student's Freedom of Expression (Minneapolis , 1966);

and Nevitt Sanford , Where Colleges Fail (San Francisco, 1967).

Charles W. Dabney , Universal Educalional in the South (2 Vols., Chapel Hill, N.C., 1936).

Like many other southern leaders, Dabney had very mixed emotions concerning the education of Negroes. Before taking up the schools and colleges as they existed in his time, he feels compelled to preface his discussion with a long introduction on the educability of the Negro—an introduction which is twice as long as his main remarks. This is how he begins: The first Negroes wcre brought out of African savagery and sold as slaves to the struggling pioneers in Virginia. Their masters were representatives of European civilization, the highest in the world at that time, while the Negroes as a whole belonged to a low order of savagery. The slaves from Africa were thus introduced into a state of law and order, of homes, of community life, and of cooperative living instead of the wild life of the jungles .... Undoubtedly they were dealt a measure of injustice and cruelty, but in comparison with the African life from which they had just come. Virginia was a land of golden opportunity for the poor people, at least from the point of view of acquiring civilization. (I, 433) On emancipation: ... the largest loss of these poor people by their emancipation was the loss of the friendship and the interested guidance of the southern whites. Not only were they cut off from most lines of skilled labor and profitable employment, but they were cut off from the people who had civilized them and taught them. (1,436)

The Southern Association , Higher Education in the South (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, 1947).

Negro educators were invited to participate in the survey. Five Negroes were invited to represent their 120 institutions, while 303 white educators were to represent 500 white colleges. Not surprisingly, Negro colleges were not offered membership in the Southern Association until 1957.

On the Gaines case, see W. Sherman Savage , 'The Influence of the Gaines Case on Negro Education in the Post-War Period', Quarterly Review of Higher Education Among Negroes (XI, 1943), pp. 1-5.

Under the conference title, the papers were published in 1943, edited by Charles S. Johnson.

See Christopher Jencks and David Riesman , 'The American Negro College', Harvard Educational Review (XXXVII, Winter 1967).

The article is reprinted in the authors' The Academic Revolution (New York, 1968). Several replies to their article appeared in the Summer 1967 issue of the Harvard Educational Review and in the Spring 1968 issue of the Antioch Review.

Thomas Jesse Jones , Negro Education (2 vols., Washington, D.C., 1917);

Arthur J. Klein , 'Survey of Negro Colleges and Universities', U.S. Office of Education Bulletin

(No. 7, 1928); and Ina Corinne Brown , Lloyd E. Blauch , Martin D. Jenkins , and Ambrose Caliver , National Survey of the Higher Education of Negroes (4 vols., Washington, D.C., 1942-3).

See the Presidential Cornmission on Higher Education, Higher Education for American Democracy, II (Washington, D.C., 1947), pp. 31-3.

Of the many books by Du Bois on the subject, The College-Bred Negro American (Atlanta University Publications XV, 1910),

and The Common School and the Negro American (Atlanta University Publications XVI, 1912)

are the most relevant. For another early work, see Edward A. Johnson , School History of the Negro Race (Raleigh, N.C., 1891).

Woodson's views are contained in The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861 (Washington, D.C., 1915 ),

The Negro in Our History (Washington, D.C., 1922),

and The Mis-Education of the Negro (Washington, D.C., 1933). Woodson was the founder of The Journal of Negro History.

Charles S. Johnson , The Negro College Graduate ( Chapel Hill, N.C., 1934);

Horace Mann Bond , The Echrcation of the Negro in the American Social Order ( Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1934),

and Negro Education in Alabama (Washington, D.C., 1939).

Other scholarship of the 1930s includes Dwight O. W. Holmes , The Evolution of the Negro College (New York, Columbia University Teachers' College, 1934);

Ullin W. Leavell , Philanthropy in Negro Education (Nashville, Tenn. , 1930); and

Buell G. Gallagher , America Caste and the Negro College (New York, 1938).

Louis R. Harlan , Separate and Unequal: Public School Campaigns and Racism in the Southern Seaboard States 1901-1915 ( Chapel Hill, N.C., 1958).

See also the studies by Vernon L. Wharton , George B. Tindall , and Claude Nolen. There is a brief but valuable chapter on Negro colleges in Merle Curti and Roderick Nash, Philanthropy in the Shaping of American Higher Education ( New Brunswick, N.J., 1965), pp. 168-85.

Larger cultural issues involving segregated education are touched upon in Stanley M. Elkins, Slavery (Chicago, 1962),

and Harold Cruse , The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual (New York, 1967).

Among the more valuable of quantitative studies are James C. Coleman , et al., Equality of Educational Opportunity ( Washington, D.C., 1966);

and A.J. Jaffe , Walter Adams , and Sandra G. Meyers , Ethnic Higher Education—Negro Colleges in the 1960s (New York, Columbia University Bureau of Applied Social Research, 1966).

Other studies include Julian C. Stanley and Andrew C. Porter , Predicting College Grades of Negroes versus Whites (Madison, Wis., 1966);

and John R. Hills , Joseph A. Klock , and Marilyn L. Bush , Freshman Norms for the University System of Georgia, 1964-1965 (Atlanta, Ga., State Department of Education, 1966).

Earl J. McGrath , The Predominantly Negro Colleges and Universities in Transition (New York, Columbia University Teachers' College, 1965).

Two of the symposia are reported in The Journal of Negro Education: 'The Negro Private and Church-Related College' , XXIX (Summer 1960),

and 'The Negro Public College', XXXI (Summer 1962).

The others are Freda H. Goldman, ed., Educalional Imperative; The Negro in the Changing South (Chicago, 1963),

and Negro Education in America (New York, 1962).

See also 'Negro Education in the United States: A Special Issue', Harvard Educational Review, XXX (Summer 1960).

Joseph H. Fichter , Graduates of Predominantly Negro Colleges-Class of 1964 (Cambridge, Mass., 1967).

See the bibliography in Harry S. Ashmore , The Negro and the Schools (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1954).

Compare Bullock's treatment, pp. 117-46, with those of Lester W. Jones, 'The Agent as a Factor in the Education of Negroes in the South' , The Jorrrnral of Negro Education, XIX (1950), 28-34; and Louis R. Harlan, Separate and Unequal, passim.