The Evolution of Canada as an Actor in Inter-American Affairs

I. For a background on theoretical aspects of Canadian relations with Central America, see James Rochlin. 'The Political Economy of Canadian Relations with Central America', NIS: The Canadion Journal of Lation America and Caribbean Studies (Vol. 13, No. 25, 1988).

The link between domestic class structure and global class structure as manifested in international institutions is discussed by Robert Cox. See Robert Cox. 'Social Forces. Slates and World Orders'. in Robert Keohane (ed.). Neorealism and its Critcs (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), p. 234; and Robert Cox , Production, Power and World Order (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), pp. 255-59.

The discussion of ideological clashes between the state and interest groups in Canada is discussed in two articles by Cranford Pratt : 'Dominant Class Theory and Canadian Foreign Policy: The Case of the Counter-Consensus '. International Journal (Vol. 39. No. 1. Winter 1983-84) and 'Canadian Policy Towards the Third World', Studies in Political Economy (No. 13, Spring 1984).

Robert Cox. 'Social Forces. States and World Orders', in Keohane , op. cit, in note 2. p, 215.

Escott Reid , 'Canadian Trade Mission to South America'. Rio de Janiero, 12 October 1941, PARC File No. 1321-40, RG 25G2, Vol. 2750, p. 6.

Fred Halliday. The Making of the Second Cold War (London: Verso, 1986).

J. Leger. charge d'affaires, Santiago. Chile. Letter to Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs. 28 May 1945. PARC File RG 4875-40c. Vol. 3182, p. 1.

Letter from Lionel Roy . Canadian charge d'affaires. Canadian Embassy . Mexico City. to Canadian Department of External Affairs , Ottawa. 7 August 1959, PARC File No. 10224-40, RG 2SG2, pt.c, p. 1.

Letter from R. Smith , high commissioner for Canada in Port of Spain, Trinidad, to Depurtment of External Affairs. Ottawa, 9 April 1960, PARC Fife RG 25G2, Vol. 2750, No. 513-40, p. 1.

Howard Green . 'Letter of Instructions to J.L. Delisle' (the new Canadian Ambassador to Central America), 17 June 1961, Department of External Affairs Archives, PARC, 2B98-A-40. p. 5.

J.C.M. Ogelsby , Gringos From the Far North ( Toronto: Macmillan, 1976), p. 9.

Government of Canada, Foreign Policy for Canadians ( Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1970), p. 6.

Ibid., p. 6.

Ibid., p. 23.

Ibid., p. 6.

Ibid., p. 7.

Interview with Emile Martel , Director, Caribbean and Central American Relations Division Department of External Affairs. Ottawa, 28 May 1985.

Canadian exports to the Caribbean were $954 million in 1984, almost twice the level of exports to Central America. See Joe Clark , Competitiveness and Security: Directions for Canada's INternational Relations ( Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada. 1985), p. 16.

For a discussion of strategic threats from Central America to US national security, see H. Kissenger et al, 'US National Bipartisan Commission on Central America'. Report of the Presirlent's National Bipartisan Commission on Central America (New York: Macmillan . 1984): Jeane J. Kirkpatrick , 'Dictatorships and Double Standards'. Commentary (No. 68, November 5979), p. 36; and Robert Tucker. The Purposes of American Power: An Essay on National Security (New York: Praegar, 1981). For a critical view of those perspectives and others, see Lars Sclusullz , Natinraul Security and United States Foreign Policy Towards Central America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).

Interview with Robert Miller. Director of Research for the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee and Associate Parliamentary Centre for Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade. Ottawa , 31 May 1985. The Standing Committee's report is Canada's Relations with the Caribbean and Central America ( Hull: Canadian Government Publishing Centre, 1982).

This statement was made during a speech at the Heads of Government Meeting of the Commonwealth Caribbean and Canada, St. Lucia . 20 February 1983.

Edgar J. Dosman , 'Points of Departure: The Security Equation in Canadian-Commonwealth Caribbean Relations', International Journal (Vol. 42. Autumn 1987), p. 843.

T. Draimin . 'Canadian Foreign Policy in El Salvador'. in Liisa North (ed.). Bitter Grounds (Toronto: Between the Lines, 1981). pp. 99-100.

Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) Bulletins , 'Aid Disbursements to Central America' (Hull: CIDA. various years).

A concise and excellent summary of the evolution of the Lalin American debt crisis is provided by Riordan Roett. 'Latin America's Debt: Problems and Prospects '. International Journal (Vol. 43, No. 3, Summer 1988). pp.428-45.

Government of Canada. Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Canada, the International Financial Institutions and the Debt Problem of Developing Countries (Ottawa: Minister of Supltly and Services, 1987), p. 12.

Ibid., p. 12.

Ibid., p. 37.

This was announced during Prime Minister Mulroney's trip to Mexico in March 1990.

Comments made by Mexican Ambassador to Canada, Alfredo Phillips, at the 'Canada-Mexico Relations in the 1990s Workshop', Toronto, February 1990.

See Government of Canada, op. cit, in note 26, p. 39.

See The Toronto Globe and Mail, 17 October 1989 and 25 October 1989.

Roy Culpepper , The Debt Matrix (Ottawa: North/South Institute, 1988), p.3.

The Toronto Star, 25 April 1989.

The Toronto Globe and Mail, 19 September 1988 .

Ibid.

For an early discussion of this process, see The Toronto Globe and Mail, 21 May 1988,

The Toronto Globe and Mail, 7 December 1987 .

The Toronto Globe and Mail, 4 January 1989.

Government of Canada, Department of External Affairs, Latin America Division, Canada's Vital Interests in Latin America and How We are Pursuing Them (Ottawa: Department of External Affairs , 1988).

Comments made by Richard Gorham. Canada's Roving Ambassador to Latin America, during a speech at a conference on 'Canada's New Policy Initiatives in Latin America', Kelowna, BC, 21 March 1990, p. 17.

Government of Canada, Department of External Affairs, Latin America Division, op. cit., in note 40, p. I.

Statistics Canada, Summary of Canadian Imports/Exports, Catalogue 65-001, various years.

Ibid.

William Ruiz , A View from the South: Canadian/Latin American Links (Otlawa: North/South Institute , 1988), p. 3.

Government of Canada, Department of External Affairs, Latin American Divison, op. cit., in note 40, p. 1.

Statistics Canada, Canada's Direct Investment Abroad, Catalogue 67-202, various years.

Ruiz , op. cit, in note 45, p. 8.

Statistics Canada, op. cit., in note 47.

CEPAL Review, 'Notas Sobre La Economia y el Desarrollo' (485/6, December 1989).

Gourier 16 October 1989.

Robert Cox , Production. Power and World Order ( New York: Colutnbia University Press, 1987), p. 259.

See the remarks made by Secretary of State for External Affairs Joe Clark with respect to the merits of free enterprise as a model for Third World economies, The Trnnrtro Star, 5 October 1989.

It is difficult empirically to judge Canada's exact position regarding austerity measures and restructuring packages imposed upon Latin American debtor countries by the IMF, since decisions in the IMF are generally reached by consensus rather than voting. However, the North/South Institute is currently examining aspects of Canadian involvement in restructuring packages, with a focus upon Guyana.

Kirkpatrick's view has been discredited by the election of the Chamorro Government in Nicaragua - a country which she had considered 'totalitarian' under the Sandinistas. See Jeane Kirkpatrick , op. cit, in note 19 and Jeane Kirkpatrick , 'US Security and Latin America', in H. Wiarda (ed.), The Central American Imbroglio (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute , 1984).

The Toronto Globe and Mail, 2 October 1989 .

Gorham , op. cit, in note 41.

Latin American Working Group , Overview of Canudian Aid to Central America. (Toronto: Latin American Working Group), 1986,

Government of Canada, Department of External Affairs, Canadian Aid to Central America, May 1988.

See The Toronto Star. 28 December 1988. For an additional discussion of human rights violations in Guatemala, see The New York Times, 4 September 1988.

See The Ottawa Cirizetr, 14 December 1989.

Interview with Stanley Gooch. Canadian Ambassador to Central America, Canadian Embassy, San Jose, Costa Rica, 1 December 1987.

Joe Clark , Notes for a Speech by the Secretary of State for External Affairs, the Right Honourable Joe Clark. to the University of Calgary on Canadian Policy to Latin Anaerica, February 1990, p. 4.

Joe Clark , Statemenr in the House of Commons on his Central American Trip 21-29 November 1987, p. 7.

The Toronto Star. 5 October 1989.

Interview with Deane Brown. Director General, South America Bureau Department of External Affairs. Ottawa 2 August 1988; and interview with Richard Gorham , Roving Ambassador for Latin America, and Permanent Observer for Canada at the Organization of American States. Ottawa, 2 August 1988.

Non-Intervention in Central America: Canadians for Self-Determination Mission for Peace: A Report (Toronto: March 1986), p. 9.

The Toronto Globe and Mail, 12 February 1987 .

The Toronto Star, 31 December 1988. These figures indicate persons seeking refugee status in Canada between 1 January 1988 and 18 December 1988.

The Toronto Globe and Mail, 8 September 1988 and The Toronto Star, 4 December 1998.

The Toronto Globe and Mail, 12 February 1987 .

The Group of Eight recently criticised the US military occupation of Panama and other aspects of US intervention in the region. See The Toronto Globe and Moil, 31 March 1990. This assessment is also based upon various interviews, including an interview with Jorge Berguno. Chilean Ambassador to Canada. Ottawa, 4 August 1988: interview with Vital Fernando Lopez de Souza. First Secretary, Ministerio das Relaciones Exteriores, Brasilia. Rraril. 12 April 1988; interview with Gooch, op. cit., in note 62.

A short list of those engaged in this debate include Robert Gilpin. War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge Univerisity Press, 1981): William Avery and David Rapkin. America in a Changing World Political Economy (London: Longman. 1982); Robert Keohane. After Hegemony (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1984); Stephen Gili. The Global Political Economy (Baltimore. MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1988): Cox . op. cit, in note 52; David Dewitt and John Kirton. Canada as a Principal Power (Toronto: Wiley and Sons, 1983): Bruce Russett , 'America's Continuing Strengths', International Organization (Vul. 39, 1985); and Halliday , op. cit, in note 6.

For example, interview with Professor David Flcisher , Universidade de Brasilia. Brazil. 12 August 1988.

For example, interview with Francisco Jose Pulit , Ambassador of Argentina, Ottawa, 3 August 1988.

Interview with Marcos de Salvo Coimbra. Brazilian Ambassador to Canada, Ottawa, 5 August 1988; interview with Emilio Carrillo Gamboa , Mexican Ambassador to Canada. Ottawa. 5 August 1988; interview with Pulit, op. cit., in note 75; interview with Brown, op. cit., in note 66; interview with Gorham. op. cit., in note 66.

Richard Gorham . Department of External Affairs, Some Preliminary Thoughts About Latin America and the Organisation of American States II May 1988. p. 6.

Even analysts of Canada's relations with the Pacific Rim argued that Canada had spent a disproportionate amount of energy upon US-Canada relations. See Michael Dortnely and John Kirton. Potential for Parthership: Canadian-Japanese Investment and Technology Relations (Toronto: Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies, University of Toronto and York University . 1988).

The Rio Group remains critical of the US invasion and refuses to recognise the US-installed government in Panama. See The Toromo Globe and Mail. 31 March 1990.

Alfred Pick . 'Letter to the Editor'. The Toronto Globe and Mail. 3 November 1989.

Clark , op. cit, in note 63. p. 8.

Cox. op. cit., in note 52; Stephen Gill , American Hegemony and the Trilateral Commission (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

Clark , op. cit, in note 63. p. 4.

Interview with Professor Edgar Dosman , York University. Toronto, 6 June 1990.