Turkey and the Middle East in the 1980s

. 'The Satanic Verses Controversy'. Briefing (No. 724, 27 February 1989), pp. 8-10 and 'The Rushdie Affair', Briefing (No. 725, 6 March 1989). pp 5-7.

Ken Mackenzie , 'Damned Both Ways', Middle East International (No. 274. 2 May 1986 ), pp. 10-11.

Ken Mackenzie . 'Flag Fuss'. Middle East International (No. 353. 23 June 1989). pp. 12-13.

M. Heper. 'Islam, Polity and Society in Turkey: A Middle Eastern Perspective', Middle East Journal (Vol, 35. No. 3, Summer 1981), pp. 347-50.

Contributing to involvement with Iraq and Syria were two key historical events that increased tensions: Turkey lost the oil-rich Mosul area to Iraq in 1939 and gained the district of Alexandretta (renamed Hatay) against Syrian claims in 1926. See F.A. Vali . Rridge Across the Bosphorus: The Foreign Policy of Turkey (Baltimore. MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1971). p. 274.

H. Akder. 'Turkey's Export Expansion in the Middle East', Middle East Journal (Vol. 41, No. 4, Autumn 1987), pp. 553-56.

There has been a lot of debate on the successes and failures of the Özal economic programme. On the one hand, he managed to enhance the country's credit rating abroad. eliminate chronic shortages of essential commodities. liberalise the import regime, sustain an average of 5.5 per cent economic growth during the middle years of the decade and achieve the first ever surplus in external payments in 1988. On the other hand, the country still has a foreign trade deficit, despite the dramatic increase in exports. Furthermore, the foreign and intemal debts are high. the budget deficit is high, the rale of economic growth slumped in the last few years of the decade and the state's role in the economy has not been significantly reduced. Above all, incnme inequalities have widened and the majority of people, with inflation at around 70 per cent and unemployment at 20 per cent. have experienced a sharp deterioration in living standards.

W. Hale. 'Turkish Agriculture and the EEC Used here is a revised unpublished version of this paper as it appeared in Orient (26.Jahrgang Nr.3, September 1985).

W. Hale , 'Turkish Industry and the EEC'. Again, an unpublished version has been used. The original paper appeared in Orient (26.Jahrgang Nr.2, June 1985).

Hale , op.cil, in note 8.

Hale , op.cit, in note 9.

'Moussavi Visit: Ozal Accused of Pursuing a Policy of Appeasement '. Briefing (No. 639. 22 June 1987), p. 5.

'Why the Deterioration in Turkey's Links with Israel?', Briefing (No. 290, 1 September 1980 ), p. 5.

Mackenzie , op. cit, in note 2.

'Gulf Bank's Growing Interest in Turkish Market', Briefing (No. 496, 27 August 1984 ). pp. 13-14 and 'Interest-free Banking Makes Inroads', Briefing (No. 532,13 May 1985), pp, 16-18. The two institutions were the Faisal Finance Corporation and the Al Bakara Turkish Finance House Inc.

Hale , op. cit, in note 9.

From 100,000 in 1983 to 30,000 in 1986. ' Crisis in Turco-Libyan Relations?', Briefing (No. 418, 21 February 1983), p. 10 and 'Turkey Caught Between an Ally and a Friend', Briefing (No. 581, 5 May 1986), p. 6.

D. Rustow , Turkey: America's Forgotten Ally (New York: Council of Foreign Relations, 1987), p. 115 and 'Review '86 ', Briefing (No. 614, 29 December 1986 ), p. 17,

A.H. U'man and R.H. Dekmejian , 'Changing Patterns in Turkish Foreign Pnlicy, 1959-1967', Orbis (Vol. 11, No. 3. Fall 1967), pp. 779-80.

Middle Eastern governments hinted at first that they might recognise the TRNC. See 'Not Simply a Ceremonial Tour', Briefing (No. 566, 20 January 1986). p. 3.

Ibid., p. 4.

'Greece, Turkey and Arabia: The Two A-wooing Go', Middle East International (No. 227, 15 June 1984), p. 12.

'Review '86', op. cit., in note 18, p. 18.

'Özal's Policies in a Tangle, in Europe and the Middle East', Briefing (No. 712, 5 December 1988), p. 5.

I owe this point to Dr. William Hale.

W. Hate , 'The Gulf War and Turkish Policy', in E. Manisali (ed.). The Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean: Recent Economic and Pnlillcal Developments (Gime Conferences, 1987). p. 12.

'Akbulut's Visit to Revitalise Relations with Iran', Briefing (No. 776, 26 February 1990 ). pp. 12-13.

'Turkey, Iran and Iraq', Briefing (No. 724, 27 February 1989), p. 19.

People complained that Istanbul's Aksaray-Laleli district was turning into a suburb of Tehran. See 'Expectations for Profit Grow as Countdown to Peace Begins in Gulf', Briefing (No. 696, 15 August 1988), p. 3.

A. Karaosmanoglou , 'Turkey's Security and the Middle East', Foreign Affairs (Vol. 62, No. 1, Fall 1983), pp. 167-70.

Metin Munir , 'The Last Resort', Middle East International (No. 164, II December 1981), p. p.

Godfrey Jansen , 'The Kurds: A Salutary Waming', Middle East International (No. 276, 30 May 1986), p. 11.

Iraq feared that Turkey would deprive it of the precious water of the river (on which it is dependent).

Turkish-Syrian relations have never been warm, principally because Ankara believes that Kurdish guerrillas operate from bases in Syria and that they have been recently training in camps in the Bekaa Valley. From Syria's point of view, a lot of resentment has been caused by the fact that Turkey threatens to overuse the Euphrates waters and - in violation of international law - deprive Syria (and Iraq) of vital supplies. See 'Mr. Yilmaz Comes Back from Damascus "Satisfied"', Briefing (No. 744, 10-17 July 1989), pp. 5-6 and Godfrey Jansen , Middle East International (No. 369, 16 February 1990). pp, 12-13.

'Turkey Fetes Zia', Briefing (No. 445, 5 September 1983), p. 9, and 'Pros and Cons of Gulf Peace for Turkey', Briefing (No. 694, 25 July - 1 August 1988), p. 6.

Hale , op. cit, in note 26, p. 14.

It was even claimed that the US desired an independent Kurdistan so that its plans for the RDF could be implemented! See 'US Support for Kurds Annoys Ally', Briefirrg (No. 689. 20 June 1988), p. 13.

I owe this point to Professor Fred Halliday.

Even Ozal himself, when prime minister, made cryptic remarks about 'past mistakes' that governments had committed. See Ken Mackenzie , 'The Kurds Again ', Middle East International (No. 360, 6 October 1989), p. 13.

Ibid. and 'The Kurdish Question: Still Taboo', Briefing (No. 766. 18 December 1989 ), p. 11.

This however did not prevent the party's disciplinary body from expelling seven parliamentary deputies for attending a conference on the Kurdish prohlem in Paris in October 1989. A host of resignations followed. See 'Kurdish Seven Thrown Out', Briefing (No. 762, 20 November 1989), p. 8; 'Can the SDPP Recover from the Wave of Resignations?' Briefing (No. 763. 27 November 1989). pp. 10-12; and 'More Resignations from SDPP'. Briefign (No. 764, 4 December 1989).p.15.

Rustow , op. cit, in note 18. pp. 26-30 and P. Dumont. 'Le Poids de l'Islam en Turquie'. in O. Carre (ed.), L'Islam et l'etat (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France . 1982), pp. 98-100.

T. Alkan , 'The National Salvation Party in Turkey', in M. Heper and R. Israeli (eds.). Islam and Polities in the Modern Middle East ( London: Croom Helm. 1984). pp. 82-85 and Briefing (No. 729, 3 April 1989). pp. 24-25.

Alkan , op. cit, in note 43, pp. 85-88 and 98-100.

W. Hale , The Political and Economic Development of Modern Turkey ( London: Croom Helm, 1981) pp. 121-23 and B. Toprak , Islam and Political Development in Turkey (Leiden : E.J. Brill. 1981), p. 122.

M.Y. Geyikdagi , Political Parties in Turkey: The Role of Islam ( New York : Praeger, 1984), p. 12.

'Islamism in Turkey', Briefing (No. 616. 12 January 1987), p. 14.

Among the best-sellers are books entitled Sex the Muslim Way. Handbook of the Muslim Girl, From the Stage to the Mosque and Allah Created the Computer. See Islamic Revival in Turkey - Is it a Serious Threat?', Briefing (No. 604. 20 October 1986 ), pp. 9-10.

U. Mumcu , Rabita (Istanbul: Tekin Yayincvi , 1987). pp. 171-73.

Ihid., pp. 173-75.

The most plausible explanation for this baffling incident is that the agreement went through Evren's office without his knowledge. It was perhaps more embarassing for him to admit publicly that he did not control his office than to admit that he agreed to such a move. However. this is pure speculation.

Mumcu , op. cit, in note 49. pp. 173-74.

Ibid., pp. 178-82.

Ibid., pp. 94-97.

'Foreign Affairs: A Change of Policy?', Briefing (No. 730, 10 April 1989), p. 10.

K.J. Holsti , 'Domestic Factors and Foreign Policy Outputs' . in J. Barber and M. Smith (eds.). The Nature of Foreign Policy in Western Europe (Edinburgh : Holmes McDougall for the Open University Press, 1974), pp, 110-13.

C. Hill. 'A Theoretical Introduction', in W. Peterson and W. Wallace (eds.). Foreign Policy Making in Western Europe (Famborough : Saxon House. 1978). pp. 21-22.

S. Mardin. 'Religion and Politics in Modern Turkey', in J. Piscatory (ed.), Islam in the Political Process (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press in association with the Royal Institute of International Affairs. 1983), pp. 153-54.

When Turkey beat Monaco in a football game in early March 1989. Turks throughout the country poured onto the streets, chanting vehement anti-European slogans. The incident was interpreted by many as an outburst of national frustration against Europe for being treated as 'second class people'. See 'Quest for Europeanisation: Respectability vs. Credibility ', Briefing (No. 725, 6 March 1989), pp. 3-5.

Heper , op. cit, in note 4, pp. 358-60 and Toprak , op. cit, in note 45, pp. 105-07.

B. Toprak , 'Religion as State Ideology in a Secular Setting', in M. Wagstaff (ed.), Aspeets of Religion in Secular Turkey (Durham: Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, University of Durham, 1990), pp. 10-15.

D. Hiro. 'The Islamic Wave Hits Turkey', The Nation (Vol. 242, No. 25, 28 June 1996), p. 883.

Holsti , op. cit, in note 56, pp.110-12.

Mardin , op. cit, in note 58, pp. 153-57 and Heper . op. cit, in note 4, pp. 360-62.

Ronnie Margulies , 'Turkey: Living with the Generals'. The Middle East (No. 133, Novemher 1985), pp. 26-27.

Mardin , op. cit, in note 58. pp. 156-57.

See Toprak's argument on the 'Turkish-Islamic Synthesis', op. cit, in note 61. pp. 10-15.

D. Kushner , 'Turkish Secularists and Islam. Jerusalem Quarterly (No. 38, 1986 ), p. 103.

'Interest-free Banking Makes Inroads'. Briefing (No. 532. 13 May 1985), pp. 16-18.

Kushner. op. cit., in note 68. p. 104.

Altough Ozal became president of Turkey in November 1989 it is widely assumed that he remains the effective leader of his former party. The appointment of a weak prime minister, Yildirim Akbulut (who is considered 'Özal's man'), strengthens this assumption.

Islamic Fundamentalism: Is There a Threat?'. Briefing (No. 611, 8 December 1986 ). pp. 5-6.

Ibid., p. 3.

'Foreign Affairs: A Change of Policy?', op. cit, in note 55, p. 10.

'Struggle for Power Reaches its Climax'. Briefing (No. 761, !3 November 1989), pp. 6-9.

Friclion was particularly acute over the headscarf issue. Evren vehemently opposed the wearing of the headscarf whereas Özal was much more tolerant. See 'Turban Law Overruled', Briefing (No. 726, 13 March 1989), pp. 3-4.

Briefing (No. 783, 16 April 1990), pp. 25-26. Turkey's exports to the Islamic countries fell from $3134.5 million in the first ten months of 1988 to $2547.8 million in the same period of 1989. Imports from the Islamic countries showed a downward trend from 1987 onwards.

'Unprecedented Mass Riots Call for a Review of Security Policy '. Briefing (No. 780. 26 March 1990), pp. 5-11, and 'Sweeping Measures Announced for the Southeast ', Briefing (No. 783, 16 April 1990), pp. 9-15.

The victims were a university professor, Muammcr Aksoy, and a journalist, Centin Emec. Both were widely respected. See Ken Mackenzie , 'Muddy Waters ', Middle East International (No. 369, 16 February 1990), pp. 11-12, and Ken Mackenzie. 'Confusion over Cyprus', Middle East International (No. 371, 16 March 1990), pp. 11-12.