For an excellent, although already somewhat outdated (in particular on Eastern Europe), overview of new thinking, see S. Bialer, "'New Thinking" and Soviet foreign policy', Survival (Vol. 30, No. 4, 1988), pp. 291-309.
2.
'Gosudarstvennoe regulirovanie i chastnoe predprinimatelstvo v kapitalisticheskikh stranakh: evoliutsiia vzaimootnoshenii' ('State regulation and private entrepreneurship in capitalist countries: the evolution of relations'), Mirovaia ekonomika i mezhdunarodnoe otnoshenie (hereafter ME i MO). Please note that the system of transliteration used in this article is the Library of Congress system without the ligatures and diacritical marks. The one exception will be Yakovlev (instead of lakovlev), which has become the accepted transliteration.
3.
The most comprehensive book on the history and operation of Soviet foreign policy research institutes is O. Eran, The Mezhdunarodniki: An Assessment of Professional Expertise in the Making of Soviet Foreign Policy (Tel Aviv : Turtledove Publishing, 1979).
4.
Useful background on the origins of the Soviet theory of SMC can be found in the following sources. For three (Marxist) discussions of Soviet theories of the capitalist state before World War II see R. Day, The 'Crisis' and the 'Crash': Soviet Studies of the West (1917- 1939) (London: New Left Books, 1981); G. Hardach and D. Karras. in association with B. Fine, A Short-History of Socialist Economic Thought (London: Edward Arnold, 1978), pp. 38-56; and B. Jessop, The Capitalist State (Oxford: Martin Robertson , 1982), pp. 33-39. After World War II the major dispute was between the influential Hungarian economist Eugene Varga and adherents of the Stalinist line. Varga was director of the Soviet Institute of World Economics and World Politics (IMKhMP) from 1927 until 1947. when it was closed because of Varga's heterodox views on capitalism. On the Stalinist model of monopoly capitalist politics and the significance of the Varga dispute see R. Nordahl. 'Stalinist Ideology: The Case of the Stalinist Interpretation of Monopoly Capitalist Politics', Soviet Studies (Vol. 26, No. 2. 1974), pp. 239-59.
5.
The Programme of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1961), p. 26. Emphasis in original.
6.
Bolshaia Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia, Third Edition (Vol. 7, Moscow: Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia , 1972), p. 159.
A. Mileikovskii (ed.), Sovremennyi kapitalizm: Sotsialnoekonomicheskii spravochnik (Moscow : Politizdat, 1985), p. 200.
11.
Ibid, pp. 201-04,205.
12.
M. Light, The Soviet Theory of International Relations (New York : St. Martin's Press, 1988), p. 1.
13.
N. Malcolm, 'Foreign Affairs Specialists and Decision Makers', in D. Lane (ed.), Elites and Political Power in the USSR (Aldershot: Edward Elgar , 1988), p. 212.
14.
Ibid, p. 208.
15.
Light, op. cit, in note 12, p. 15.
16.
Eran, op. cit, in note 3, pp. 147-48; N. Malcolm, op. cit, in note 13, p. 212.
17.
Eran, op. cit, in note 3, p. 156.
18.
A. Lynch, The Soviet Study of International Relations (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1987 ), p. 66. On 'deutopianization' of the Soviet view of capitalism sec also J. Hough, 'The Evolution in the Soviet World View', World Politics (Vol. 32, No. 4, 1980). pp. 509-30.
19.
N. Malcolm, Soviet Political Scientists and American Polities (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984), p. 19.
20.
See ibid, p. 156.
21.
Ibid, p. 156.
22.
Ibid, pp. 165-66.
23.
Eran, op. cit, in note 3, p. 239.
24.
Ibid, pp. 238-39.
25.
E. Schneider , 'Soviet Foreign-Policy Think Tanks'. The Washington Quarterly (Vol. 11. No. 2, 1988), p. 150.
26.
Eran, op. cit, in note 3, p. 148.
27.
N. Beloff, 'Escape from Boredom: A Defector's Story', The Atlantic (Vol. 246. No. 5, 1980), p. 45.
28.
Eran, op. cit, in note 3, p. 148.
29.
Ibid, p. 63.
30.
Malcolm, op. cit, in note 13, p. 213.
31.
Eran, op. cit, in note 3, p. 155.
32.
Malcolm, op. cit, in note 19, p. 159.
33.
Malcolm, op. cit, in note 13, p. 215.
34.
N. Temko, 'Soviet Insiders: How Power Flows in Moscow', in E. Hoffmann and R. Laird (eds.). The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era ( New York: Aldine Publishing Company. 1984), pp. 173-4.
35.
The Programme of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Moscow: Novisti Press Agency Publishing House, 1986), p. 15.
36.
Ibid, p. 18.
37.
M. Gorbachev , Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 27th Party Congress (Moscow: Novisti Press Agency Publishing House, 1986), p. 18.
38.
Ibid, p. 19.
39.
Ibid, p. 83.
40.
M. Gorbachev , Pravda (2 October 1986), p. 1.
41.
M. Gorbachev , Izvestiia (2 November 1987), p. 4.
42.
T. Hasegawa, 'Gorbachev. The New Thinking of Soviet Foreign-Security-Policy and the Military: Recent Trends and Implications', in P. Juviler and H. Kimura (eds.) Gorbachev's Reforms: US and Japanese Assessments (New York ; Aldinede Gruyter, 1988), p. 120.
43.
V. Kuznetsov , 'Pochemu reprivatizatsiia?', ME i MO (No. 10, 1986), pp. 85-86.
44.
Ibid, p. 87.
45.
V. Studentsov , 'Burzhuaznaia natsionalizatsiia i privatizatsiia v mekhanizme gosudarstvenno-monopolisticheskogo kapitalizma', ME i MO (No. 10. 1986), p. 88. The standard formula maintains that state-monopoly regulation increases the social content of productive forces but does not alter the private-capitalist mode of appropriation, '[SMC] extremely accelerates the process of socialisation of production.... But socialist productive relations emerge only as a result of socialist revolution' Rumiantsev el, al. (eds.), op. cit., in note 8, p. 240.
46.
Studentsov, op. cit, in note 45 Ibid., p. 90.
47.
Ibid, p. 96.
48.
Ibid, p. 94.
49.
Ibid, p. 96.
50.
I. Osadchaia , 'Sdvigi v kontseptsii i praktike gosudarstvennogo regulirovaniia ekonomiki', ME i MO (No. 3, 1987), p. 100.
51.
Ibid p. 101.
52.
R. Kapeliushnikov , 'Reprivatizatsiia i teoriia obobshchestvleniia ', ME i MO (No. 1, 1987). p. 72.
53.
Ibid, p. 72.
54.
Ibid, p. 72.
55.
Ibid, p. 72.
56.
V. Peschanskii , 'Natsionalizatsiia ne ustarela', ME i MO (No. 12, 1986), pp. 104-05.
57.
lu. Kochevrin , 'Natsionalizatsiia i khoziaistvennaia effektivnost ', ME i MO (No. 1, 1987), pp. 68-69.
58.
R. Kapeliushnikov, op. cit, in note 52, p. 73.
59.
Ibid, p. 73.
60.
V. Rosin, 'Reprivatizatsiia i novye usloviia kapitalisticheskogo vosproizvodstva ', ME i MO (No. 2, 1987), p. 76.
61.
E. Leonteva, 'Iaponiia', ME i MO(No. II, 1986), p. 77.
62.
V. Pankov, '''Deregulirovanie" i evoliutsiia khoziaistvennogo mekhanizma GMK', ME i MO (No. 4, 1987), p. 73.
63.
Ibid, pp. 75-76.
64.
V. Rubtsov, 'Pereosmyslenie "obshcheizvestnogo" neizbezhno', ME i MO (No. 4, 1987), pp. 77 and 78.
65.
S. Peregudov , 'Delo ne tolko v formakh sobstvennosti', ME i MO (No. 12, 1986), p. 102.
66.
N. Gnatovskaia , 'Privatizatsiia - ekonomicheskaia politika', ME i MO (No. 12, 1987), p. 115.
67.
A. Shapiro, 'Demontazha GMK ne bylo i net', ME i MO (No. 6, 1987), p. 83.
68.
Ibid, p. 83.
69.
Ibid, p. 85.
70.
Ibid, p. 87.
71.
Ibid, p. 88.
72.
V. Volobuev , 'GMK 80-kh godov - formirovanie novoi modeli ', ME i MO (No. 1, 1987), p. 67.
73.
V. Kuznetsov , 'Regulirovanie kapitalisticheskoi ekonomiki v 80-e gody', ME i MO (No. 8, 1988), p. 65.
74.
Ibid, pp. 65-66.
75.
Ibid, p. 67.
76.
V. Studentsov , 'Sdvigi v gosudarstvennom regulirovanii i ekonomicheskaia rol gosudarstva', ME i MO (No. 1, 1989), p. 16.
77.
Ibid, p. 11.
78.
Ibid, pp. 19-20.
79.
Ibid, pp. 20-21.
80.
Ibid, p. 21.
81.
S. Bialer, 'The Soviet Union and the West: Security and Foreign Policy', in S. Bialer and M. Mandelbaum (eds.), Gorbachev's Russia and American Foreign Policy (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988), p. 479.
82.
Hasegawa, op. cit, in note 42, p. 121.
83.
V. Medvedev , 'K poznaniiu sotsializma', Kommunist (No. 17, 1988), p. 8.
84.
It is interesting to note that many of the positions reflect those adopted by Western proponents of privatisation. The effects on operational efficiency, the prospect of reducing budget deficits, the introduction of competition, a curtailment of the power of trade unions, and the unhealthy position of state officials vis-à-vis nationalised industries are all arguments used by British politicians and economists who support the Conservative Party's privatisation program. See S. Brittan, 'The Politics and Economics of Privatisation ', Political Quarterly (Vol. 55, No. 2, 1984), pp. 109-28; and O. Letwin, Privatising the World: A Study of Internatinnal Privatisation in Theory and Practice (London: Cassell Educational , 1988).
85.
A. Yakovlev , 'Dostizhenie kachestvenno novogo sostoianiia sovetskogo obshchestva i obshchestvennye nauki', Vestnik akademii nauk SSSR (Vol. 6, 1987), pp. 77-78.
86.
A. Kollontai , 'Reprivatizatsiia - zveno v obshchem pereraspredelenii ekonomicheskikh funktsii', ME i MO (No. 4, 1987), pp. 80-81.
87.
V. Kuznetsov , 'Marksizm-Leninizm i vzaimozavisimyi mir', Partiinaia zhizn (No. 23, 1988), pp. 75 and 76. See also N. Sergeev, 'Problemy ekonomiki kapitalizma', Agitator (No. 14, 1988), pp. 58-60. Agitator has had the same editor since 1973 and Partiinaia zhizn has had the same editor since 1966. See A. Rahr, 'Who Is in Charge of the Party Apparatus', Report on the USSR (Vol. I, No. 15, 1989), p. 24.
88.
lu. Borko, '0 mekhanizmakh samorazvitiia sovremennogo kapitalizma', Kommunist (No. 15, 1988), p. 106.
89.
Ibid, p. 114.
90.
A. Adamishin , 'Doomed to discord?', New Times (Vol. 12, 1989), p. 15.
91.
Ibid, p. 14.
92.
A. Ageev, 'Evoliutsiia khoziaistvenno-politicheskogo mekhanizma i ekonomicheskii rost'. ME i MO (No. 2, 1987), p. 81.
93.
A. Yakovlev, 'Istoki ugrozy i obshchestvennoe mnenie', ME i MO, (No. 3, 1985). p. 14. See Malcolm , op. cit, in note 13, pp. 211-12.
94.
A. Yakovlev, 'Mezhimperialisticheskie protivorechiia - sovremennyi kontekst', Kommunist (No. 17, 1986), p. 5.
95.
Yakovlev, op. cit, in note 85, p. 76.
96.
A. Yakovlev, Pravda (11 August 1988), p. 2.
97.
A. Yakovlev, Pravda (28 February 1989), p. 2.
98.
E. Primakov, 'XXVII sezd KPSS i issledovanie problem mirovoi ekonomiki i mezhdunarodnykh otnoshenii', ME i MO (No, 5, 1986). p. 6.
99.
V. Kuznetsov , 'Zapadnyi opyt i nashi ckonomicheskie reformy ', ME i MO (Vol. 3, 1989), pp. 5-12.
100.
Ibid, pp. 12-17. See also his second article of the same title in ME i MO (Vol. 7, 1989 ), pp. 5-17, which is solely on price reform.
101.
Gorbachev's attempt in October 1989 to fire Vladistav Starkov, the reformist editor of Argumenty i fakty, demonstrated that his commitment to glasnost was not absolute. There is a fundamental difference, however, between a specialist academic journal such as ME i MO and popular newspapers. Moreover, there is no doubt that editors of both types of publications have much greater control than in the pre-Gorbachev era, and Starkov in fact retained hisjob.
102.
Lynch, op. cit, in note 18, p. 3.
103.
See S. Meyer , 'The Sources and Prospects of Gorbachev's New Political Thinking on Security', International Security (Vol. 13, No. 2, 1988), pp. 124-63 (especially pp. 129-33).
104.
Schneider, op. cit, in note 25, p. 153.
105.
Malcolm.op. cit., in note 13, p.218.
106.
M. Gorbachev , Pravda (19 January 1989). p. 2.
107.
G. Shakhnazarov , 'Vostok - Zapad: k voprosu o deideologizatsii mezhgosudarstvennykh otnoshenii', Kommunist (No. 3, 1989), p. 72.
108.
E. Primakov , V. Martynov and G. Diligenskii, 'Nekotorye problemy novogo myshleniia ' ME i MO(No. 6, 1989), p. 17.
109.
Ibid, p. 16.
110.
Ibid, p. 15.
111.
Ibid, pp. 15-17.
112.
M. Gorbachev , 'Sotsialisticheskaia ideia i revoliutsionnaia perestroika', Pravda (26 November 1989). p. I.
113.
Ibid, p. 1.
114.
Ibid, p. 2.
115.
Ibid, p. 2.
116.
Europe plays a pivotal role in new thinking. One indication of this is the creation of an Institute of Europe, with the reform-minded Vitalii Zhurkin as its director. See, for example, his articles on security policy: V. Zhurkin, S. Karaganov and A. Kortunov, 'Reasonable sufficiency - or how to break the vicious circle', New Times (No. 40. 1987), pp. 13-15; and by the same authors, 'Vyzovy bezopasnosti - starye i novye'. Kommunist (No. I, 1988), pp. 42-50.
117.
L. Alayev , New Times (No. 26, 1989), pp. 13-14.
118.
M. Gorbachev , Ekonomicheskaia gazeta (No. 25, 1989), p. 3.
119.
M. Gorbachev , Pravda (7 July 1989), p. 3.
120.
M. Gorbachev , Izvestiia (10 December 1989), p. 2.
