Japan's Security Policy After US Hegemony

For proponents of the US hegemonic decline thesis, see, for example, David Calleo , Beyond American Hegemony; The Future of the Western Alliance, ( New York: Basic Books, 1987) ; Robert Gilpin , The Politiral Economy of International Relations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987): Paul Kennedy. The Rise and Fall of the Grout Powers (New York: Random House, 1987).

Chalmers Johnson , The End of American Hegemony and the Future of U.S.-Japan Relations', Harvard International Review. 10th Anniversary Issue: American Foreign Policy: Toward the 1990s (1989), pp. 127-131.

Robert Cox , 'Production and Hegemony: Toward a Political Economy of World Order ', in Harold K. Jacobson and Dusan Sidjanski , (eds.), The Emerging Industrial Economic Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1982), p. 45.

Torbjon Knutsen , 'Hegemony in the Modem International System', Paper prepared for the 1986 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, August 28-31, 1986, p. 15.

Robert Gilpin , War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 17,156, 187.

New York Times, 3 June 1988 ; 28 November 1988.

Interim Report of the Defense Burdensharing Panel of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, Second Session, August 1988 (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1988), pp. 4-7.

See Kenneth B. Pyle , 'Japan, the World. and the Twenty-first Century ', in Takashi inoguchi and Daniel I. Okimoto , The Political Economy of Japan, Vol. 2, The Changing lnternarional Context (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988), pp. 454-6.

Stephen D. Krasner , 'Japan and the United States: Prospects for Stability', in inoguchi and Okimoto, op. cit, pp. 401-2.

Japan: An Irrternatiotaal Comparison, 1989, (Tokyo : Keizai Koho Center, 1989). p. 81.

Sogoanzenhosho Kenkyu Gurupu. Sogoanzenhosho Senrpaku (Comprehensive security strategy), (Tokyo: Okurasho Insatsukyoku , 1980, p. 7.

Ibid, pp. 7-8.

Heiwamondai Kenkyukai , Kokusaikokka Nihon no Sogo Anzenhosho Seisaku (Comprehensive security policy of an international nation Japan) (Tokyo: Okurasho Insatsukyoku, 1985), pp. 24-9. The four major developments identified by that report were: (1) the rough parity between the US and Soviet strategic capabilities, (2) the decline in US economic power and the problems of budgets deficits in the advanced countries and debt accumulation in the developing nations, (3) the growing trends toward a multilateral international system caused by the rise of China as an independent force on the international scene and by the increasingly assertive Third World, and (4) the beginning signs of the 'Pacific Age' due to the advancement of the nations in the Pacific region.

Gaimusho , Showa 62-nenban, Gaiko Seisho. Wagakuni Gaiko no Kinkyo (Diplomatic bluebook, recent developments in our nation's diplomacy, 1988) (Tokyo: Okurasho Insatsukyoku, 1988), p. 2.

See, for example, Takashi Inoguchi , Kokusai Karrkei no Seiji-keizaigaku: Nihon no Yakuwari to Sentaku (The political economy of international relations: Japan's role and choices), (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1985); Takashi lnoguchi , Tadanori to Ikkokuhaneishugi o koete: Tenkanki no Sekai to Nihon (Beyond free-ride and unilateral prosperity: The world and Japan in a transitional period), (Tokyo: Toyo Keizai Shimposha, 1987); Takashi lnoguchi , 'Beikoku: Ajiansenryaku Minaoshi Hitsuyoni' (The United States: Asian strategy review has become necessary) , Nihon Keizai Shimbun, March 18, 1989 , p. 21 ; Kuniko Inoguchi , Posuto-haken Shisutemu to Nihon no Sentaku (The emerging post-hegemonic system: Choices for Japan) (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo , 1987); Tadashi Kawata , Kokusaikankei no Seiji-keizaiXaku (The political economy of international relations), (Tokyo: Nihon Hoso Shuppan Kyokai, 1987); Tadashi Kawata , Kokusai Seiji-keizaigaku o mezashite (Toward international political economy) ( Tokyo: Ochanomizu Shobo, 1988).

Paul Kennedy , op. cit As soon as Kennedy's book came out in the United States, it was translated into Japanese and became an instant best-seller in Japan, Kennedy has since been invited by numerous publishers and professional associations in Japan. This attests to the wide-spread acceptance among Japanese intellectuals of the theme of U.S. hegemonic decline.

See, for example, Chihiro Hosoya , 'Riijonarizumu no Taito to Nihon no Sentaku' (The rise of regionalism and Japan's options), Gaiko Forum (Diplomatic forum) , October 1988, pp. 26-33; Terumasa Nakanishi's interview with Paul Kennedy , 'Watashi wa naze "Taikoku no Kobo" o Kaitaka' (Why did 1 wriie the 'Rise and Fall of the Great Powers'?), ibid., pp. 62-77; Kuniko Inoguchi's interview with Paul Kennedy , P. Kenedi Kyoju Nihon o Kataru' (Professor P. Kennedy talks about Japan) This Is, November 1988, pp. 136-155; 'Paul Kennedy Kyoju ga Kataru: "Gunjika wa Suitai Hayameru"' (Professor Paul Kennedy speaks: 'Militarization quickens decline'). Asahi Shimbun Weekly AERA, March 21, 1989, pp.58-9.

These principles were presented in Takeshita's speech at the National Press Club in Washington on January 14, 1988. The speech is reproduced in full as 'A Nation Contri buting More to the World: Japan's Commitment to Global Prosperity', Speaking of Japan, (Vol. 9, No. 89, May 1988), pp. 27-32.

This was first announced during Takeshita's trip to London in May 1988 and reiterated as part of his speech before the third special session of the UN General Assembly on disarmament. The latter speech is reproduced in full as Speech by Noboru Takeshita. Prime Minister, at the Fifteenth Special Session of the General Assembly (Third Special Session Devoted to Disarmament) , United Nations, New York (Jnne 1, 1988), Policy Speech Series 25, (Tokyo: Ministry of Foreign Affairs ).

An outline of these components appears in Gaimusho, 'Kokusai Kyoryoku Koso: "Sekai ni Kokensuru Nihon" no Gutaizo' (Framework for international co-operation: A concrete image of'Japan contributing to the world'), Toki no Ugoki, July 15, 1988, pp. 26-8.

An English summary of the budgetary allocations for the new initiative is found in Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 'International Cooperation Initiative (Contributing to the Peace and Prosperity of the World', January 1989 (mimeograph).

Ibid.

The then Defense Secretary, Melvin Laird, admitted there was a trade-off between troop reductions in the region and security assistance increases. See Final Report to the Congress of Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird before the House Armed Services Committee, (January 8 1973), pp. 5-6.

John M. Collins , U.S.-Soviet Military Balance, 1980-1985, (Washington, DC : Pergamon-Brassey's, 1985), p. 139.

For an expression of this realisation, see for example the statement by William Clark, Jr. , Acting Assistant Secretary for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, before the Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, February 27, 1989. The statement is reprinted as William Clark, Jr. , 'FY 1990 Foreign Assistance Requests for East Asia and the Pacific ', Current Policy, No. 1150.

Daniel Gallik (ed.), World Military Expenditures and Arms Tranvfers, 1987 (Washington, DC: US Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, 1988).

Defense of Japan. 1982 (Tokyo: Japan Time, 1982), pp. 31-3.

Ibid, p. 30.

Chalmers Johnson , 'Japariese-Soviet Relations in the Early Gorbachev Era', Asian Survey, (Vol. 27, No. I I November 1987), pp. 1147-52.

For an explanation of the Japanese reluctance, see Kazuyuki Kinbara , 'Nissoshiberiya Kaihatsu Kyoryoku no Kaiko to Tembo' (A relection and prospects of Japan-Soviet Siberia development co-operation), in Tokyo Kokusai Shimpojumu: Tenkaiki no Soren (Soviet Union in Transition) (Tokyo: Nihon Kokusaimondai Kenkyujo, 1986), pp.300-22.

For the same view, see Robert A. Scalapino , 'Asia's Future ', Foreign Affairs. (Vol. 66, No. I, Fall 1987), p. 106. During the recent working-level discussions between Moscow and Tokyo, for example, Moscow emphasised that the conclusion of agreements on principles of economic co-operation, protection of Japanese investment in the Soviet Union, reciprocal opening of bank offices, environmental protection, tourism, and peaceful space development would pave the way toward Gorbachev's visit to Tokyo. Tokyo countered that the political climate is not ripe for such agreements to have a positive effect on the bilateral relations. Asahi Shimbun, March 21, 1989, p.2.

See Tsuneo Akaha , 'Japan's Response to Threats of Stripping Disruptions in Southeast Asia and the Middle East', Pacific Affairs (Vol. 59, No. 2, Summer 1986), pp.255-77.

Boeicho , (ed.), Boeihakusho (Defence whitepaper), (Tokyo; Okurasho Insatsukyoku. 1988), p. 184.

The description of US-Japan joint military exercises is based on Ibid., pp. 199-202; Melinda W. Cooke, 'National Security', in Frederica M. Bunge (Ed.), Japan: A Country Study (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1983), p. 377.

The description of Japanese support for US forces in Japan is found in Ibid., pp. 206-13.

Interim Report of the Defense Burdensharing Panel of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, Second Session, August 1988, (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1988), pp. 8-9.

For a discussion of the concept of'comprehensive security' in English, see Robert W. Barnett , Beyond War: Japan's Concept of Comprehensive National Security (Washington, DC: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1984); J.W.M. Chapman , R. Drifte , and I.T.M. Gow , Japan's Quest for Comprehensive Security: Defense. Diplomacy, and Dependence ( New York: St Martin's Press, 1982 ). Discussions. in Japanese can be found in: Gendai Sogo Kagaku Kenkyujo, 80-nendai Nihon no Sogoanzenhosho (Japan's comprehensive security in the 1980s) (Tokyo; Kyoikusha , 1979); Heiwamondai Kenkyukai , Kokusaikakka Nihon no Sogo Anzenhosho Seisaku (Comprehensive security policy of an international nation Japan) (Tokyo: Okurasho Insatsukyoku , 1985); Sogo Anzenhosho Kenkyu Gurupu, Sogo Anzenhosho Senryaku (Comprehensive security strategy) ( Tokyo: Okurasho Insatsukyoku, 1980 ).

Dennis T. Yasutomo , The Manner of Giving: Strategic Aid and Japanese Foreign Policy (New York : Lexington, 1986).

Interim Report..., p 9.

See for example Prime Minister Takeshita's press conference with Japanese reporters in Washington on February 3, 1989 in Asahi Shimbun, February 5, 1989, p. 1

David F. Lambertson (Deputy Assistant Secretary for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 'Future Prospects for the Philippines', Current Policy, No. 1157, pp. 5-7.

Asahi Shimbun, July 4, 1989, p. 3.

For a detailed discussion of the security implications of bilateral technological issues between Japan and the United States, see Reinhard Drifte, High Technology in Japanese-American Relations, forthcoming.

Justin Bloom , 'The US-Japan Bilateral Science and Technology Relationship: A Personal Evaluation', in Mitchell B. Wallerstein , ed., Scientific and Technological Cooperation Among Industrialized C'ountries: The Role of the United States (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984 ), quoted in Ibid, pp. 28-9.

For a detailed study of Japan's decision to participate in the SDI research and development, see Peggy L. Falkenheim , Japan and Arms Control: Tokyo's Response to SDI and INF, Aurora Papers 6 (Toronto : The Canadian Centre for Arms Control and Disarmament , 1987 ).

The Christian Science Monitor, April 4, 1989 , p. 6.

New York Times, March 4, 1989, pp. 1 and 4.

New York Times in its editorial on March 18, 1989 called on Bush to cancel the project.

Asahi Shimbun , April 7, 1989, p. 4.

New York Times, April 12, [989, p. 21.

The Christian Science Monitor, April 4, 1989 , p. 6.

New York Times, April 18, 1989, pp. 33 and 47.

Walter Galenson and David W. Galenson , 'Japan and South Korea', in David B.H, Denoon , (ed.), Constraints on Strategy: The Economics of Western Sccrerily. ( Washington, DC: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1986), p. 157.

See, for example, Hisahiko Okazaki , A Grand Strategy for Japanese Defense (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1986); Kenichi Ito and Fuji Kamiya , 'Mazakon Kokka Nihon no Katsuro' (The way out for the nation with a mother complex, Japan) , Shokun, October 1985, pp. 44-59.

American Foreign Policy, 1986, ( Washington, DC: US Department of State, 1986), p. 532.

Nakasone's speech at the National Press Club in Washington on May 1, 1987, in JEI Report, May 8, 1972, p. 2.

Ronald Reagan , National Security Strategy of the United States (Washington, DC; Pergamon-Brassey's , 1988), p. 87.

The precipitous decline in the LDP's popular support to unprecedented low levels (25.6 percent) prior to the elections and the public revelation of Uno's involvement with a geisha girl both contributed to the disastrous results of the election. The Liberal Democrats won only 36 seats out of the 126 seats for election and were clearly defeated by the Socialists who won 46 seats. As a result, the LDP controlled only 109 seats in the 252-seat House of Councillors. Asahi Shimbun, July 25, 1989, p. 1.

Harold Jacobson , 'Eroding Hegemony and National Tolerances for Security Responsibilities', in Ronald A. Morse and Shigenobu Yoshida , eds, Blind Partners: American and Japanese Responses to an Unknown Figure , (Washington, DC: University Press of America , 1985) p. 90. Jacobson notes that economic conflicts with Japan have had no apparent impact on the public's willingness to use U.S. military forces to defend Japan.

Such an appeal has come from former West German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt and former US Defense Secretary Robert McNamara. Asahi Shimhun. July 3, 1989. p. 3 and July 5, 1989, p. 10.

Asahi Shimbun , July 11, 1989, p. I.