International Relations Theory: Contributions of a Feminist Standpoint

Sandra Harding , The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986). See Christine Sylvester , 'The Emperor's Theories and Transformations: Looking at the Field Through Feminist Lenses', in Dennis Pirages and Christine Sylvester (eds.), Transformations in the Global Political Economy (London: Macmillan, 1989, forthcoming).

Ibid, p. 16

See J. Ann Tickner , 'Hans Morgenthau's Principles of Political Realism: A Feminist Reformulation', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 17, No. 3, Winter 1988).

Sandra Harding , op. cit, p. 195.

Hans J.,Morgenthau , Politics Among Nations, Fourth Edition (New York: Knopf, 1967 ), p. 26.

Kenneth N. Waltz , Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 1979), p, 192.

David A. Baldwin , 'Power Analysis and World Politics', World Politics (Vol. 31, No. 2, January 1979), p. 179.

Quoted in Nancy C.M. Hartsock , Money, Sex and Power: Toward a Feminist Historical Materialism (New York: Longman, 1983), p. 219. See also J. Ann Tickner , op, cit, p. 434.

Jean Bethke Elshtain , 'Feminist Themes and International Relations Discourse', paper presented at the International Studies Association/British International Studies Association Joint Convention, London , March-April, 1989, p. 6.

Hedley Bull , The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics ( New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), p. 8.

F.H. Hinsley , Sovereignty (London: C.A. Watts , 1966).

See Martin Wight , Systems of States (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1977).

James Wilson , quoted in Gordon S. Wood , The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 (Chapel Hill,: University of North Carolina Press, 1969), p. 530. Wood points out that the Federalists appropriated the absolutist concept of sovereignty - the notion there must be only one 'final, indivisible and incontestable authority in every state to which all other authorities must be ultimately subordinate' - to their purposes by creating the fiction of 'popular sovereignty'. In another vein, however, Madison once admitted that if sovereignty could not be divided, 'the political system of the United States is a chimera. mocking the vain pretensions of human wisdom'. See Charles E. Merriman , A History of American Political Theories (New York: Macmillan, 1903), p. 259, citing an 1865 edition of Madison's Works, Volume 4, p. 61.

James H. Kettner , The Development of American Citizenship , 1608-1870 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1978).

Martin Wight , op. cit, p. 35.

Robert Axelrod , The Evolution of Cooperation ( New York: Basic Books, 1984); Robert O. Keohane , 'Reciprocity in International Relations', International Organization (Vol. 40, No. I, Winter 1986), pp. 1-27.

Carol Gilligan , In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); Joan C. Tronto , 'Beyond Gender Difference to a Theory of Care', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society (Vol. 12, No. 4, Summer 1967), pp. 644-63. This point is also indebted to a talk by Joan Tronlo at a conference on Gender and International Relations at the Center for International Studies, University of Southern California, 28-9 April 1989. For a discussion of empathy as a factor in international co-operation, see Robert O. Keohane , After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1984), ch. 7.

Since I have often been misunderstood on this point, let me emphasise that I do not identify with neorealism, understood as 'an attempt to systematize political realism into a rigorous, deductive systemic theory of international politics'. Robert O. Keohane , 'Realism, Neorealism and the Study of World Politics', in Robert O. Keohane (ed.). Neorealism and Its Critics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), p. 15 and fn. 7 on p. 25; and Robert O. Keohane , International Institutions and State Power (Boulder, CO: Westview , 1989), pp. 7-9.

Evelyn Fox Keller , Gender and Science ( New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 117.

I am indebted for this point to discussions with, and unpublished papers by, Walter Powell.

Some of this perspective is reflected in Cynthia Enloe , Does Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women's Lives (London : Pandora, 1983);I am also indebted for this point to conversations with Professor Enloe.

Mary E. Hawkesworth , 'Knowers, Knowing, Known: Feminist Theory and Claims of Truth', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society (Vol. 14, No. 3, Spring 1989), p, 554.

Ibid, p. 553.

I owe this remark to Joan Tronto, who made it in the course of a critique of postmodernist international relations thinking at the Gender and International Relations conference, University of Southern California, April, 1989.

Mary E. Hawkesworth , op, cit, p. 556.

Imre Lakatos ; 'Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programs ', in Imre Lakatos and Alan Musgrave (eds.), Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. 175.

Linda Alcoff, Cultural Feminism Versus Post-Structuralism: The Identity Crisis in Feminist Theory', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society (Vol. 13, No. 3, Spring 1988), p.419.

Mary E. Hawkesworth , op. cit, p. 557.

Robert O. Keohane , International Institutions and State Power, op. cit., pp. 3,9.

See Robert O. Keohane , 'Closing the Fairness-Practice Gap', Ethics and International Affairs (Vol. 3, 1989), pp. 101-16.