America'sAlly,Britain's Opponent: Belgium and the OEEC/EPU Debates,1947-50

For a standard and conventional interpretation see Stephen Ambrose , Rise to Globalism (New York: Viking, 1980). The new revisionist literature and perspective is best seen through Lawrence S. Kaplan , 'The Cold War and European Revisionism ', Diplomatic History (Vol. 11, No. 2, Spring 1987), pp. 143-56; Michael J. Hogan , The Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947-52 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Ritchie Ovendale , The English-Speaking Alliance: Britain, the United States, The Dominions and the Cold War, 1945-1951 ( London: Allen and Unwin, 1985); Alan Milward , The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945-51 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984); M. Kolling , Führungsmacht in Westeuropa? Grossbritanniens Auspruch und Scheitem, 1944-50 (Berlin: Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR- Zentralinstitut fur Geschichte, 1984); John W. Young , Britain, France and the Unity of Europe, 1945-51 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1984); Immanuel Wexler , The Marshall Plan Revisited: The ERP in Economic Perspective (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983); and Pierre Melandri , Les États-Unis face à l'unification de l'Europe 1945-1954 (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1980).

Walter Lipgens , A History of European Integration, 1945-47 (London: Oxford University Press, 1982); and Raymond Poidevin (ed.), Histoires des débuts de la Construction européenne, mars 1948 - mai 1950 (Bruxelles: Bruylant, 1986). See also Richard Mayne , The Recovery of Europe, 1945-73 (New York: Harper and Row, 1970); Hans Schmitt , The Path of European Union ( Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1962); F. Roy Willis , France, Germany and the New Europe, 1945-63 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1965); Jacques Fauvet , La IVe République (Paris: Hachette, 1959). On the American contribution of 1945-50, see John Gimbel , The Origins of the Marshall Plan (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1968); Charles Maier , 'The Politics of Productivity: Foundations of American International Economic Policy after World War II', International Organization, (Vol. 31, No. 1, 1977), pp. 607-34; Michael J. Hogan , 'The Search for a Creative Peace: The United States, European Unity, and the Origins of the Marshall Plan', Diplomatic History (Vol. 6, No. 3, 1982), pp. 267-85; Scott Jackson , 'Prologue to the Marshall Plan: The Origins of American Commitment for a European Recovery Program', Journal of American History, (Vol. 65, No. 4, 1979), pp. 1043-68.

Pierre-Henri Laurent , 'Small States Diplomacy and European Integration: The Beneluxers and the Move Toward Economic Union', Europa (Vol. 5, No. 2, 1982), pp. 263-78. On Belgium in general, see Ferdinand Baudhuin, Histoire économique de la Belgique ( Bruxelles: Livres de Bruxelles. 1971); Adrien Manning , 'Les Pay-Bas face a l'Europe', in Raymond Poidevin, op. cit, pp. 410-46; Dirk V. Stikker , Memoires (New York: Harper and Row , 1966), pp. 119-38; J. Armand-Wailus , En marge de la politique belge, 1914-56 (Paris: Fayard, 1957). On Spaak, sec Jacques Huizinga , Mr. Europe: Political Biography of Paul-Henri Spaak (London: Weidenfeld. 1961); Jacques Willequet , Paul-Henri Spaak ( Bruxelles: Renaissance de Livre, 1975) and especially Paul-Henri Spaak , Combats inachéves ( Paris: Fayard, 1969), Vols. 1 and II, and Paul Smets (cd.), Paul-Henri Spaak: La pensée europeenne et atlantique (Bruxelles: J. Goemaere , 1980), a major collection of Spaak letters and documents. Also see David O. Kieft , Belgium's Return to Neutrality (London: Oxford University Press, 1972) and Pierre-Henri Laurent , 'The Reversal of Belgian Foreign Policy, 1936-37', Review of Politics (Vol. 31, No. 3, July 1969), pp. 370-85, for Spaak's ideas before the war; Pierrc-Henri Laurent , 'Paul-Henri Spaak and the Diplomatic Origins of the Common Market, 1955-56', Political Science Quarterly (Vol. 85, No. 3, September 1970), pp. 373-97; Pierre-Henri Laurent , 'The Diplomacy of the Rome Treaties, 1956-57', Journal of Contemporary History (Vol. 7, Nos. 3-4. July-October 1972), pp. 209-21, on Spaak and the creation of the EC.

Interview, Paul-Hcnri Spaak, Bruxelles, July 7. 1967. Sec also Paul-Henri Spaak , op. cit . Vol. 1, pp. 125-72 and Vol. 2, pp. 12-20and Paul Smets , op. cit, pp. 48-66 and 77-86.

James Meade , Negotiations for Benelux: An Annotated Chronicle 1943-19.56 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957); F. Pceters , 'Benelux-Ideal und Wirklichkeit', Politische Bildung (Vol. 6, 1953). pp. 58-63.

Interviews: Paul-Henri Spaak. 7 July 1967; Jean-Gharles Snoy et d'Oppuers, 2 August 1977; and V. Larock, 6 August 1967. Snoy was a major economic advisor of the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Larock was a Socialist Party foreign policy expert. On small states' diplomacy, see Robert Rothstein , Alliances and Small Powers (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968) and Trygve Mathieson , Functions of Small States in Strategies of Great Powers (Oslo: Universitatforslag, 1971).

For Belgium, see Camille Gutt , La Belgique au Carrefour 1940-45 (Paris: Fayard, 1969) and Charles Kindleberger , The Marshall Plan Days ( Boston, MA: MIT Press, 1987) and Fernand van Laugenhove , 'Belgium's Role in Europe', The Annals (Vol. 247, September 1946), pp. 171-78. Dutch policy is reflected in Dirk Stikker , 'The Functional Approach to European Integration', Foreign Affairs (Vol. 29, No. 3, April 1951), pp. 436-44.

Interview, Paul-Henri Spaak, 7 July 1967.

Interview, Jean-Charles Snoy et d'Oppuers. 2 August 1977.

Robert Triffin , Europe and the Money Muddle (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957) for a succinct analysis ofthe trade finance questions.

Robert A. Best, Jr. , 'Co-operation with Like-Minded Peoples': British Influences on American Security Policy, 1945-49 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986), although basically on security issues, does provide insight on European economic conflicts, as does Jean Stengers , 'Paul-Henri Spaak et le traite de Bruxelles dc 1948', in Raymond Poidevin. op. cit, pp. 119-42. More specifically, R. Manderson-Jones , The Special Relationship: Anglo-American Relations and Western European Unity, 1947-56 (London: London School of Economics, 1972) shows that from the start the US and UK were fundamentally at odds on economic and 'European' issues; Geoffrey Warner , 'The Labour Governments and the Unity of Western Europe, 1945-51', in Ritchie Ovendale (ed.), The Foreign Policy of the British Labour Government, 1945-51 (Leicester : Leicester University Press, 1984 ), pp. 80-2; Elliot Zupnick , Britain's Postwar Dollar Problem (New York: Columbia University Press, 1957); Richard Cooper , The Economics of Interdependence: Economic Policy in the Atlantic Community ( New York: Harper and Row, 1968), especially pp. 28-42, and Richard Gardner , Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy: The Origins and Prospects of our International Economic Order (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), Chapter 1.

Paul Smets , op. cit, pp. 134-48. 173-74 and 236-40. See also John L, Harper , America and the Reconstruction of Italy, 1945-48 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 157-69; H. Price , The Marshall Plan and its Meaning (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1955); Alan Milward , op. cit, pp, 274-81 and 465-93; William Diebold , Trade and Payments in Western Europe (New York: Harper and Row. 1952), and on the British, Henry Pelling , The Labour Government, 1945-51 (New York: Macmillan. 1984), pp. 187-210.

J. Metissen and B. Zceman , 'Britain and Western Europe, 1945-51: Opportunities Lost?', International Affairs, (Vol. 61, No. 1. 1986-87), pp. 81-95; interviews. op. cit.: Spaak, 7 July 1967; Snoy, 2 August 1977. Sec also Jean Monnet , Memoirs (New York: Doublcday, 1978), pp. 271-86 and pp. 288-317 ; Vincent Auriol , Journal du Septennat 1947-54 (Paris: A. Colin , 1970), pp. 90-104.

Jcan-Charlcs Snoy et d'Oppuers , 'L'attitude beige sur le projet "Alphand" Chronique étranger (Vol. 9, No.3, 1963), pp. 1147-72. Also, Andre de Lattre , Les finances exterieure de la France (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France . 1959), pp. 350-58 ; Herve Alphand , L'etonnement d'être (Paris: Fayard, 1977), pp. 84-91 ; . Jean Dumaine , Quai d'Orsay - 1945-51 ( Paris: A. Colin. 1955), passim; and Georgette Elgey , La République des illusions, 1945-51 (Paris: Fayard, 1965).

Pierre Gerber , 'La genese du Plan Schuman'. Revue française de scienre politique (Vol. 6, 1956), pp. 529-30.

Oeec , Plan of Action for 1949-50 (Paris: OEEC, March 1949). pp. 97-120; R.F. Khan , 'A Possible Intra-European Payments Scheme '. Economica (Vol. 16, 1949), pp. 293-304; Dirk V. Stikker , op. cit, pp. 188ff. On the British, see Alan Bullock. Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary, 1945-51 (New York: Macmillan, 1983); Elizabeth Barker , The British Between the Superpowers, 1945-50 (London: Macmillan, 1983); David Dilks. 'Britain and Europe, 1948-1950: The Prime Minister, the Foreign Secretary and the Cabinet" , in Raymond Poidevin, op. cit, pp. 391-418, and Leon D. Epstein , Britain - Uneasy Ally (Chicago, IL; University of Chicago Press, 1954), pp. 44-74. See Fred Ritsch , The French Left and the European Idea, 1947-1949 (New York: Praeger, 1966).

See Richard Henshaw , Toward European Convertability; (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press , 1958) and John H. Williams. 'The Revision of Intra-European Payments Plan', Foreign Affairs (Vol. 28, No. 1, October 1949), p. 153. On the particular Belgian position see Paul Smets , op. cit, pp. 236-46.

Oeec , European Recovery Program: Second Report of the OEEC (Paris: OEEC, February 1950), pp. 312-51; M.J. Fleming , 'Regional Organization of Trade and Payments', American Economic Association Papers (Vol. 42, May 1952), pp. 345-58; Alfred O. Hirschman , 'The European Payments Union: Negotiations and Issues', Review of Economics and Statistics (Vol. 31, No. 1, February 1951), pp. 49-55. On the politics see Alan Bullock , op. cit, p. 721ff., Alan Milward , op. cit, pp. 335-61, and Immanuel Wexler , The Marshall Plan, pp. 142-53.

M. Kolling , op. cit, passim; Alan Bullock , op. cit, pp. 730-35; Paul Smets , op. cit, pp. 182-91.

Paul-Henri Spaak , op. cit, pp.30-59; Paul Smets , op. cit, pp. 259-70; also see Oliver Crawford , Done This Day: The European Idea in Action (New York: Taplinger, 1969), pp. 39-48 and 63-73; Dirk Stikker , op. cit, passim, and Johan H. Beyen , Het Spel en de Knikkers: Een Kroniek van Vilftig Jaren (Rotterdam, 1968). pp. 12-14.

C.C.S. Newton , 'The 1949 Sterling Crisis and British Policy towards European Integration', Review of International Studies (Vol. 11, No. 3. July 1985), pp, 169-82.

Alan Bullock , op. cit, pp. 723-25.

Foreign Relations of the United States, Vol. 3 (Washington, DC: US Government, Printing Office, 1949), Hoffman to Harriman. 17 March 1949; Timothy Ireland, Creating the Entangling Alliance: The Origins of NATO (Boulder, CO: Westview. 1981), pp. 163-164; Armin Rappaport , 'The United States and European Integration: The First Phase', Diplomatic History (Vol. 5. No. 3, 1981), pp. 121-49; and Pierre Melandri , 'Le role de l'unificatian europeenne dans la politique exterieure des Etats-Unis 1948-1950'. in Raymond Poidevin, op. cit, pp. 25-46.

Foreign Relations of the United Slates, Vol. III (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. 1949), Harriman to Acheson, November. 1949.

See the important work of Jonathan E. Helmreich , Gathering Rare Ores: The Diplomacy of Uranium Acquisition 1943-54 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,

On Germany, see Hans-Jurgen Schroder , 'Die Amerikanische Deutschlandpolitik und das problem des Westeuropaischen integration, 1947/48-50', in Raymond Poidevin , op. cit, pp. 71-104, and Raymond Poidevin , 'Le facteur Europe dans la politique allemande de Robert Schuman(été 1948-printemps 1949)'. in Poldevin , op. cit, 311-326.