Managing Protracted Social Conflicts in the Third World : Facilitation and Development Diplomacy

There appears to be a cyclical pattern in the superpowers' intervention behaviour in the Third World. While superpower military interventions increased between 1945 and 1970 to the point that Western and Communist Bloc leaders were parties to most of the 641 conflict events, there was a sharp decrease in such interventions after 1970. However, there is a recurring trend toward resorting to military intervention in the late 1970s and early 1980s. For this trend analysis, refer to William Eckhardt and Edward Azar , 'Major World Conflicts and Interventions, 1945 through 1975', International Interactions (Vol. 5, No. 4, 1978), pp. 203-40.

See E. Azar , R. McLaurin , and P. Jureidini , 'Protracted Conflict in the Middle East'. Journal of Palestine Studies (Autumn 1978), pp. 41-69.

William Eckhardt and Edward Azar , op. cit

For theoretical and empirical discussions of protracted social conflicts, see E. Azar , 'Peace Amidst Development', International Interactions (Vol. 6, No. 2, 1979), pp. 123-43; E. Azar , 'The Theory of Protracted Social Conflicts and the Challenge of Transforming Conflict Situations', in Dina Zinnes (ed.), Conflict Process and the Breakdown of International System (Denver, CO: University of Denver, 1983); Steve Cohen and E. Azar 'The Transition from War to Peace Between Egypt and Israel', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 16, No. 2, 1982), pp. 87-114; and Michael Brecher , 'International Crises and Protracted Conflict', International Interactions (Vol. II, Nos. 3-4, 1984), pp. 237-97.

The North Korean-South Korean conflict is not communally driven. However, the ideological division between the two over the last three decades, with its complete blocking of communication, has created a psychological and communicative barrier causing mutual distortion and thereby a further deepening of the military tension,

For the assertion linking structural inequality to PSCs, see E. Azar and Nadia Farah , 'The Structure of Inequality and Protracted Social Conflicts: A Theoretical Framework', International Interactions (Vol. 7, No. 4, 1981), pp. 317-36.

A. Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (New York: Praeger, 1962). The role of the state in conflict-provoking or conflict-resolving needs separate research attention. Also, the state may not necessarily be an instrument of the dominant class. The state may enjoy a substantial relative autonomy in orchestrating social forces and the direction of economic development. Thus, we need to approach this issue in a contextual manner.

For the notion of structural victimisation, refer to E. Azar , 'Peace Amidst Development ', op. cit, p. 129.

The physical quality of life index is calculated by a formula comprising such variables as infant mortality, life expectancy at age one, and literacy. Each of the composite is indexed on a scale of 0 (the poorest) to 100 (the best performance). The mean value for PSC-iaden countries is derived from averaging each PQLI of countries listed in Table 1. For the concept of the physical quality of life index, see Overseas Development Council , The US and Third World Development ( Washington, DC: ODC, 1982).

For an overview of the patterns of communal conflicts, see Cynthia Enloe , Ethnic Conflict and Political Devolopement (Boston, MA : Little, Brown, and Co., 1973); N. Glazer and D. Moynihan (eds.), Ethnicity: Theory and Experience ( Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975). and Donald Horowitz , 'Patterns of Ethnic Separatism'. C'ompuralire Studies in Society and History (Vol. 23, April 1981 ), pp. 165-95.

Lebanon is an example. For further exploration of this topic, see Walker Connor. 'Nation-Building or Nation-Destroying?'. World Politics (Vol. 24, No. 3. 1972), pp. 319-55, and Donald Rothchild. 'State and Ethnicity in Africa: A Policy Perspective'. paper presented at the 1984 annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, the Washington Hilton . August 1984.

For a good summary of ethnicity as a reflection of class relationships. refer to Mohammed Said. Ethnicity and a Mode of Integration in the African States , unpublished PhD dissertation. University of North Carolina , 1983, and to Anthony D. Smith , 'Conflict and Collective Identity: Class, Ethnie and Nation', in E. Azar and J. Burton (eds.), International Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice ( Sussex: Wheatsheaf, 1986), pp. 63-84,

On the topic of group dynamics of communal conflict, see Mazafer Sherif , et al.. Intergroup Conflict and Cooperations: The Robbers Cave Experiment ( Norman. OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), and to Herbert Kelman , Patterns of Personal Involvement in the National System', in J. Rosenau (ed.), International Politics and Foreign Policy ( New York: The Free Press, 1969), pp. 276-88. Also see John Burton , Deviance, Terrorism and War ( London: Martin Robertson, 1979), Chapter 3.

Lebanon and Sri Lanka, along with the Arab-Israeli conflict, are two good recent examples which show tragic consequences of PSCs.

Resolution, settlement, and reduction are being used interchangeably. John Burton, however, distinguishes settlement from resolution: in 'settlement', conflict is seen as an objective phenomenon of which the nature is zero-sum, while in 'resolution', conflict is seen as an outcome of subjective aspects - basic needs, values, and recognition - which can be handled in a positive sum manner. John Burton . 'The Procedures of Conflict Resolution', in E. Azar and J. Burton (eds.), op. cit, pp. 92-7. Also refer to John Burton , Global Conflict (Sussex: Wheatsheaf , 1984), pp. 143-52.

See John Burton , 'The History of International Conflict Resolution ', in E. Azar and J. Burton , op. cit, pp. 40-55.

For an empirical survey of international mediation efforts, see Robert L. Butterworth , Managing Interstate Conflict (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh, 1976).

Facilitated conflict resolution workshops have been applied, albeit in different formats, by Edward Azar, Michael Banks. John Burton, Stephen Cohen, John Groom. Herbert Kelman, Chris Mitchell, Bryant Wedge, and several others.

On description of workshop experiences involving Lebanon and the Malvinas-Falkland Islands. see E. Azar , 'The Lebanese Case', in E. Azar and J. Burton , (eds.) op. cit, pp. 126-40, and George Foulkes , 'The Falklands - Another Way Forward?', The Parliamentarian: Journal of the Parliaments of the Commonwealth (Vol. 66. No. 3, July 1985). pp. 112-14.

E. Azar , 'Development Diplomacy', in Joyce Starr (ed.), Shared Destiny (New York: Praeger, 1983), pp. 137-48.