Peace Research and International Relations: From Divergence to Convergence

John Burton , 'Peace Research and international Relations ', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 8, No. 3, 1965), pp. 281-6.

Ibid., pp. 281-4.

S.H. Mendlovitz , On The Creation of a Just World Order: Preferred Models for the 1990s (New York: The Free Press, 1975), p. 175.

F. Parkinson , The Philosophy of International Relations: A Study in the History of Thought (Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), p. 10.

A. Linklater , Men and Citizens in the Theory of International Relations ( London: Macmillan, 1982), p. 18.

Thus, Parkinson argues, the practical, historical writings of Thucydides commanded attention during the height of the Greek city-state system, whereas its decline from the fifth century on produced a growing interest in stoic universalism. F. Parkinson , op. cit, p. 12.

F. Parkinson , op. cit, p. 13; A. Linklater , op, cit, pp. 19-22.

Though numerous proposals for the management of international order appeared throughout the seventeenth century, it was the publication of Abbe Saint-Pierre's Projet Pour Rendre la Paix Perpetuelle dans l'Europe, in 1712 that set the tone for the enlightenment reformism. The Abbe proposed that states should renounce all recourse to war and apply federative principles to their relations with each other. It is in the Abbe's Projet that the first attempts to casually connect the internal stability of states with the stability of international relations are found. Though his conservatism and reliance on 'interdynastic solidarity' as the basis for peace were rejected by the philosophers of the enlightenment more interested in change, he established the terms of the debate (F. Parkinson, op cit, Chapters 3 and 4). It is perhaps a sobering thought to note that the debate between the absolutist advocates a balance as a mechanism of order and the enlightenment philosophers of progress in relations between states still appears fresh and pertinent to contemporary discussion,

I. Kant , quoted in A. Linklater , op. cit, p. 97.

A. Linklater , op. cit, p. 97.

For this simple but loaded question, I am greatful to Andrew Linklater of Monash University. The terms realist and idealist are employed throughout this paper with reference to their usage within the international relations literature. Thus, realism refers to that view of international relations usually seen as originating in the writings of Machiavelli, Hobbes, Carr, Kautilya, Treitschke, Neibuhr, and more recently, Spykman, Schuman and Morgenthau, which has as its central themes: the centrality of the state to analysis; an anti-utopian emphasis on the immutable features of the international order; an analysis of state behaviour which holds that the prime determinant of foreign policy is the acquisition and maintenance of power, reflecting specific national interests. Its advocates see realism as co-terminous with 'the theory of international relations'. Finally, many, if not all, disparage discussions of the ethics of international relations, seeing political theory as derived from political practice and historical experience. They therefore doubt the existence of a transcendent ethical realm above the state. Arguably, the dominant mode of discourse in the discipline, since 1945, it has recently been extensively reconstructed by 'neo-realists', such as Kenneth Waltz. What is meant by idealism is, hopefully apparent throughout the discussion.

Clark , ' World Order Reform and Utopian Thought: A Contemporary Watershed ?', The Review of Politics (Vol. 41, No. 1, 1979), pp. 96-120.

Ibid., pp. 108-11.

Ibid., pp. 111-12.

F. Parkinson , op. cit, p. 68.

A. Link later, op. cit, p. 121.

R.J. Rummel gives a fascinating account of the evolution in the 1950s of his belief of the possibility of a 'science of peace'. His pacifism combined with a fascination for both mathematics and science fiction produced a faith in science as to the path of peace. As a consequence he initially rejected the writings of established realists as 'untestable metaphysical speculations'. It was only in the 1970s that he reconsidered his earlier dismissal of the non-scientific literature (see R.J. Rummel , 'The Roots of Faith', in J.N. Rosenau , In Search of Global Patterns (New York: The Free Press, 1976) See also: Q., Wright , A Study of War (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1942); T. Lentz , Towards a Science of Peace: Turning Point in Human Destiny (New York: Bookman Associates, 1955); L.F., Richardson , Statistics of Deadly Quarrels (Pittsburgh, PA: Boxwood Press, 1960).

J. Dedring , Recent Advances in Peace and Conflict Research: A Critical Survey (Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, 1976), p. 15.

J. Gattung , 'Sociology 49 (Columbia University)', in Papers: A Collection of Works Previously Available Only in Manuscript or Very Limited Circulation Mimeographed or Photocopied Editions (Oslo: PRIO, Vol 2, 1958), pp. 87-111. Galtung's output is truly voluminous. Consequently, references to his work are restricted to the source of his citations or particular arguments. Many such arguments are not addressed directly but are dispersed throughout a number of books and papers. His understanding of sociology, for example, is most clearly expressed in some lectures and papers given at Columbia University in the late 1950s, prior to his shift to peace research. His understanding of what peace research entails is equally dispersed throughout numerous essays. For a useful bibliographical guide to his work, and a number of critical essays, see N.P. Gleditsch , et. al., Johan Galtung : A Bibliography of His Scholarly and Popular Writings ( Oslo: PRIO, 1980).

In personal discussions with this writer in 1984, Galtung disagreed with this account, arguing that his interest in a quantitative, social scientific form of enquiry was motivated by a pragmatic understanding of the need to deflect the controversy inherent in arguing for peace research - 'science' is easier to obtain practical support for, than an explicitly normative approach. In addition, Galtung argues that he was naturally influenced by the spirit of the age - he was well acquainted with the leading scholars of positivist sociology during his time as a postgraduate and young teacher in the United States. It is, in fact, because of this that I continue to argue that Habermas' understanding of the 'intention of positivism' holds for Galtung as well as anyone else. For a discussion of Comte's understanding of positivist sociology see J. Habermas , Knowledge and Human Interests ( Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1971).

Contemporary examples might include the tendency for modem weapons of mass destruction to be given names like peacemaker'.

The following papers cited which only later became part of a collection, were written by J. Galtung in the following years respectively: 1965 , 1967 and 1971, J. Galtung , 'International Programs of Behavioural Science: Research in Human Survival', in Essays in Peace Research Vol. I ( Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 1975 ), pp. 167-87; 'Peace Research: Science of Politics in Disguise', ibid., pp. 224-43; 'Peace Research: Past Experiences and Future Perspectives', ibid..

A. Comte , quoted in J. Habermas , op. cit , p. 74.

J. Galtung , in Essays .... op. cit, p. 250.

Ibid., p. 249.

J. Galtung.

J. Galtung.

For examples of the application of sociology to the study of international relations see volumes 3 and 4 of J. Galtung , Essays in Peace Research, published respectively in 1978 and 1980.

J. Galtung , 'An Outline of Structural-Functional Theory Applied to the Analysis of Social Change', Papers: A Collection of Works ... (Oslo: PRIO, Vol. 2, 1958), pp. 149-79.

I would now prefer to be more precise in depicting what I mean by 'radical intent' and employ Habermas' concept of cognitive interest'.Original intentions notwithstanding, Habermas argues that positivism cannot deliver its emancipatory promise, but results in technical knowledge. Thus, peace research as initially depicted by Galtung, is condemned to remain as a managerial or technological 'science'. This is, of course, the gist of the radical critique that appeared in the late 1960s. Habermas simply provides the basis for a more systematic presentation for that form of critique.

The analogy with health is discussed in J. Galtung. in Essays Vol. 1, op. cit., pp. 170-2.

Ihid., p. 226.

H. Schmid , 'Peace Research and Polities', Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 5, No. 3, 1968). pp. 217-32; L. Dencik , 'Peace Research: Pacification or Revolution? ', in G. Pardesi, (ed.) Contemporary Peace Research (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1982); O.J. Olsen and I.M. Jarvad , 'The Vietnam Papers: A Case-Study of Failure in Peace Research', Peace Research Society Papers. 14 ( The Ann Arbor Conference. 1969), pp. 155-70.

H. Schmid , op. cit

Galtung denies that 'Violence Peace and Peace Research' was expressly written as a reply to Schmid. This seems to be the case, given that it was written during the same period as Schmid, although published in the following year. More significantly, Galtung argues the source of inspiration for the idea of structural violence was Gandhi, whose influence critics have consistently failed to acknowledge (see the introduction to volume 5 of Essays in Peace Research, op.cit., 1980). The origins of the idea of structural violence can clearly be traced back into Galtung's work published prior to the upheavals which Schmid's article helped to spawn. Nevertheless, Galtung engages in something of a polemical reply to Schmid in the footnotes and the article was clearly revised in order to address Schmid's particular concerns. A point worth noting is that Galtung's role in the turmoil remains unclear. All of the radical critics of earlier peace research have left the field whereas Galtung, the theorist of much of earlier peace research, remains peace research's principle figure, now associated with its radical wing.

J. Galtung , 'Violence Peace and Peace Research' (written in 1969 ) in G. Pardesi , (ed.) op. cit.

J. Galtung. op. cit., 'Peace Research: Past Experiences and Future Perspectives', op.cit.

H.H. Holm , Johan Galtung and the Science of Human Fulfillment : From Petal-Picking to Mega-Research. in N.P. Gleditsch (ed.), op. cit.

K.E. Boulding , 'Future Directions in Peace Studies', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 22, No. 2, 1978), pp. 342-54: K.E. Boulding , 'A Two-Part Interview With Harry Redner', Social Alternatives (Vol, 3, Nos, 1-2, 1983).

See inter alia, M. Stohl and M. Chamberlain , 'Alternative Futures for Peace Research '. Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 16, No. 4, 1972), pp. 521-30; G. Kent , 'The Application of Peace Studies', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 15, No. 1, 1971), pp. 47-53; K.E. Boulding , 'Future Directions in Peace Studies', op. cit, and R. Rapoport , 'Various Conceptions of Peace Research ', Peace Research Society Papers, 14 (The Ann Arbor Conference, 1982 ),

J. Galtung , The True Worlds: A Transnational Perspective (New York : The Free Press, 1980).

See inter alia, K. Eide , 'Note on Gaitung's Concept of "Violence" ', Journal of Peace Research (Vol.8, No. I, 1971), p. 71; G. Van Den Bergh , 'Theory of Taxonomy: Some Critical Notes on Johan Galtung's "A Structural Theory of Imperialism" Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 9, No. 1, 1972), pp. 77-92; I. Bellany , 'Peace Research: Means and Ends', International Affairs (Vol. 52, No. I, 1976), pp. 13-26; K.E. Boulding , 'Twelve Friendly Quarrels With Johan Galtung', Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 14, No. 1, 1977), pp. 75-86; C. Boasson , 'The Province and Function of Peace Research', in A.R. Blackshield , (ed.) Legal Change: Essays in Honour of Julius Stone (Sydney: Butterworths, 1983).

J.Gaitung , 'Social Cosmology and the Concept of Peace', Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 18, No. 2, 1980), pp. 183-99.

J. Galtung . 'Twenty-Five Years of Peace Research: Ten Challenges and Some Responses', Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 22, No. 2, 1985). pp. 141-58.

Pruit and Snyder and more recently Hakkan Wiberg employ the phrase 'peace research movement' to capture the sense of protest and demand for change that was implicit in the idea of peace research. Similarly, Elsie Boulding refers to the 'essentially intuitive revolt against the IR establishment' in a 1972 overview of Peace Research.

Not all of the advocates of the methodological revision were inclined towards reformism implicitly or explicitly. Morton Kaplan, one of the pioneers of the behavioural school, clearly restricts his work to an analysis of the relevance of the philosophy of science to the study of international relations and the application of concepts from other disciplines. More recent efforts by Kenneth Waltz to place realism on a more rigorous, scientific epistomological footing can also hardly be said to be reformist in intent.

D. McDougall , Harold D. Lasswell and the Study of International Relations (Lanham , MO: University Press of America, 1984).

H.R. Alker, Jr. and T.J. Biersteker , 'The Dialectics of World Order: Notes For a Future Archeologist of International Savoir Faire', International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 28, No. 3, 1984), p. 126.

J.N. Rosenau , 'A Pre-Theory Revisited: World Politics in an Era of Cascading Interdependence', International Studies Quarterly (Vol 28, No. 1, 1984), p. 251.

For a recent example of the differences between the classical and scientific approaches see the exchange between James Rosenau and Fred Northedge conducted in Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 5, No. Spring 1976 ). Northedge's invective is aimed largely at the employment of the term 'analyst', by the scientifically-minded Rosenau, as well as the shift from 'analysis' to prescription.

J. Burton , World Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966).

J.N. Rosenau , International Studies and the Social Sciences (Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, 1973), p. 22.

M. Light and A.J.R. , Groom , International Relations: A Handbook of Current Theory (London: Frances Pinter, 1985).

M. Banks (ed.), Conflict in World Society: A New Perspective on International Relations (Brighton : Wheatsheaf, 1984), p. xiii.

For a vigorous attempt to quantitatively demonstrate both the dominance of the realist paradigm and the empirical inadequacy of realism and early behaviouralism see J.A. Vasquez , The Power of Power Politics: A Critique (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1983).

M. Banks , op. cit, p. 20. The influence of John Burton is evident in all of the contributions to the world society perspective. Burton's work explicitly addresses the interrelationship between value-systems, goals, theory and policy in a manner that is, at times, extraordinarily reminiscent of Galtung's synthetic efforts. Both are iconoclastic in their approach and emphases. However, Burton seems to resist the political radicalism so evident in Galtung's later work and also clearly identifies his target as the dominant theory of international relations. In spite of Burton's innovative research agenda, in particular its focus on socio-psychological and socio-biological aspects of transnational relations, this author remains unconvinced that it constitutes a convincing overthrow of the realist paradigm. See, J. Burton , Deviance Terrorism and War: The Process of Solving Unsolved Social and Political Problems (Oxford: Martin Robertson , 1979); J. Burton , Global Conflict the Domestic Sources of International Crisis (Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1984).

The literature is enormous and still growing. The leading proponents would include Gunder-Frank, Emmanuel, Amin, Rodney and Prebisch. It is worth noting, however, that interest in the approach seems to have reached a plateau, with the focus of international relations swinging back to a concern with East-West relations. Just how much the discipline is influenced by periodic faddishness, rather than genuine theoretical advance, is a moot point.

I. Wallerstein , The Politics of the World Economy: The States. The Movements and The Civilisations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).

C. Brown , 'Development and Dependency', in M. Light and A.J.R. Groom , (eds.) op. cit, pp. 60-73.

For example see J. Galtung , 'Past Experiences ...'. op. cit, for a critique of the abstract ahistoricism of Galtung's approach see C. Brown , 'International Theory: New Directions', Review of International Studies (Vol. 7, No. 3, 1981), pp. 173-86.

For criticisms see I. Clark , 'World Order Reform and Utopian Thought: A Contemporary Watershed?', The Review of Politics (Vol. 41, No. 1, 1979), pp. 96-120; T.J. Farer , 'The Greening of the Globe: A Preliminary Appraisal of the World Order Models Project (WOMP)', International Organisation (Vol. 31, No. 1, 1977), pp. 129-47; S.J. Michalak , 'Richard Falk's Future World: A Critique of WOMP - USA', The Review of Politics (Vol. 42, No. 1, 1980), pp. 3-17.

H.D. Lasswell , 'The Promise of the World Order Modelling Movement ', World Politics (Vol. 19, No. 3, 1977), pp. 425-37.

T.J. Farer , op. cit, p. 147.

R.K. Ashley , 'Political Realism and Human Interests', International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 25, No. 2, 1981), p. 208.

For an application of these categories within a critical analysis of 'world modelling' literature see R.K. Ashley , op. cit, p. 208.

A. Linklater , Marx and the Critical Theory ..., op. cit, p. 17.

R.W. Cox , 'Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 10, No. 2, 1981), pp. 126-55.

A. Linklater , Marx and the Critical Theory of International Relations (Unpublished Manuscript, 1984), pp. 19-20.

Ibid., p. 20.

R.W. Cox , op. cit, p. 138.

J.A. Vasquez , op. cit

This debate has clearly now begun, due to the publication of the cogent argument for the adoption by Australia of a policy of armed neutrality and the tabling of the government sponsored Dibb Report on Australian defence. The latter has created considerable public debate by arguing that Australia should and could develop an independent defence capability. This would necessarily entail a substantive shift in Australia's defence posture away from the traditional reliance on 'forward defence'. Critics doubt Australia's capability to defend itself. Many also condemn a perceived 'Fortress Australia' mentality behind the report, in particular the apparent move away from the reliance on a 'great and powerful friend', traditionally the UK and more recently the United States. See David Martin , Armed Neutrality for Australia (Blackburn, Victoria: Dove Communications, 1984 ).