Machiavelli, The Prince (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), Chapter 11, 'Ecclesiastical principalities', pp. 73-4.
2.
Hans-Jakob Stehle, The Eastern Politics of the Vatican: 1917-1979 ( Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1981) p. 5.
3.
See, for example, Peter Nichols, The Politics of the Vatican ( London: Pall Mall Press, 1968), especially Chapters 2, 3 and 7.
4.
See, for example, Hans-Jakob Stehle, op. cit., and Dennis J. Dunn, 'The Vatican's Ostpolitik: Past and Present', Journal of International Affairs (Vol. 59, No. 1, Fall-Winter 1982-83).
5.
Statistics drawn from Christian Social Association Information Bulletin (No. 10, December 1982) and from a circular of the Polish Episcopate Press Bureau (September 1983).
6.
Radio Free Europe Research Report 88 (Eastern Europe), 'Eastern Europe: Toward a Religious Revival?', p. 25, and Pedro Ramet, 'The Czechoslovak Church Under Pressure ', The World Today (Vol. 38, No. 9, September 1982).
7.
Pedro Ramet, op.cit, p. 356.
8.
Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, Vol. 2 (Oxford: Oxford University Press , 1981), p. 406.
9.
Christopher Cviic, 'The Church', in Abraham Brumberg (ed.), Poland: Genesis of a Revolution (Garden City, NY: Random House, 1983), p. 94.
10.
Jan Nowak , 'The Church in Poland', Problems of Communism (Vol. 31, January-February 1982), p. 3.
11.
The Catholic Church in the German Democratic Republic has enjoyed freedoms in many respects commensurate with those of the Church in Poland, but the number of Catholics in East Germany is far smaller, representing only about 8 per cent of that state's population. See Dennis J. Dunn, Detente and Papal-Communist Relations, 1962-1978 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979), p. 170.
12.
Bismarck's Kulturkampf in the 1870s aimed to eliminate Catholicism in Germany. See J.A.S. Grenville, Europe Reshaped 1848-1878 ( London: Fontana, 1984), p. 366. The effort in Russia was of much longer duration. See Norman Davies, op. cit, Chapter 7.
13.
Norman Davies, op. cit, p. 212.
14.
Ibid., Chapter 7.
15.
Georges Castellan , Dieu garde La Pologne. Histoire du Catholicisme polanais, 1795-1980 (Paris: Laffont , 1981), p. 24.
16.
Marian Helm-Pirgo , Virgin Mary: Queen of Poland (Historical Essay) , (New York: 1957).
17.
Norman Davies , Heart of Europe: A Short History of Poland (Oxford: Oxford University Press , 1984), pp. 175-278, Chapter 4.
18.
Ewa Morawska , 'Civil Religion vs. State Power in Poland', Society (Vol. 21, No. 4, May-June 1984). Morawska defines 'civil religion' as 'a set of religiopolitical symbols and rituals regarding a nation's history and destiny', pp. 29-30.
19.
Ibid, p. 30.
20.
Hans-Jakob Stehle , op. cit, p. 19. Stehle also cites Pope Pius XII's efforts to prevent war in Europe in 1939 by applying pressure on Poland to accede to Hitler's demands. He also asserts that the Vatican gave up whatever influence it might have had with the Western allies in arguing for a post-war Poland free of Soviet influence by failing to adopt a resolute stand against Nazi Germany, and by establishing formal diplomatic relations with Japan during the war.
21.
'Decretum: Responsa ad dubia de communismo'.
22.
Cited in Dennis J. Dunn, The Catholic Church and the Soviet Government, 1439-1949 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), p. 171.
23.
Ibid, p. 145.
24.
Jan Nowak, op. cit, p. 6
25.
Ibid, p. 8.
26.
Bogdan Szajkowski , Next to God... Poland: Politics and Religion in Contemporary Poland(London: Frances Pinter, 1983), p. 17.
27.
Ibid, p. 17.
28.
Ibid, p.35.
29.
Christopher Cviic, op. cit, p. 98.
30.
Neal Ascherson , The Polish August (Harmondsworth : Penguin, 1982), p. 120.
31.
See Hans-Jakob Stehle, op. cit, p. 342.
32.
DennisJ. Dunn , Detente and Papal-Communist Relations, op. cit., p. 117.
33.
Ibid, p. 120. Also, Anna Kaminska , 'The Polish Pope and the Polish Catholic Church ', Survey (Vol. 24, No. 4, Autumn 1979), p. 215.
34.
Christopher Cviic, op. cit, p. 93.
35.
Neal Ascherson, op. cit, pp. 94-5.
36.
Bogan Szajkowski, op. cit, pp. 45-6.
37.
Adam Michnik, La Gauche, l'Eglise et le Dialogue (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1979).
38.
Neal Ascherson ; op. cit, pp. 123-4. Also, Jan B. de Weydenthal, Bruce D. Porter and Kevin Devlin, The Polish Drama: 1980-82 (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1983), p. 36.
39.
See discussion and notes in Suzanne Hruby, 'The Church in Poland and its Political Influence, Journal of International Affairs (Vol. 59, No. 1, Fall-Winter 1982-83), p. 324.
40.
Jan Nowak, op. cit, p. 13.
41.
Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity 1980-82 (London : Jonathan Cape, 1983), p. 32.
42.
Anna Kaminska, op. cit, p. 218.
43.
Christopher Cviic, op. cit, p. 106.
44.
Bogan Szajkowski, op. cit, p. 95.
45.
On 19 March 1981, riot police invaded offices occupied by members of Rural Solidarity in Bydgoszcz and beat up about 27 members. The incident touched off a national furor among Solidarity supporters. See Neal Ascherson, op. cit, pp. 264-6.
46.
Bogan Szajkowski, op. cit, p. 107.
47.
Ibid, p. 112.
48.
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens.- Encyclical Letter of John Paul II on Human Work (London : Catholic Truth Society, 1984).
49.
Jan B. de Weydenthal, et. al., op. cit, p. 75.
50.
Bogan Szajkowski , op. cit, pp. 111, 147n. Also The New York Times, 30 January 1983.
51.
Bogan Szajkowski, op. cit, p. 112.
52.
Ibid., and The New York Times, 30 January 1983.
53.
Bogan Szajkowski, op. cit, pp. 110-11.
54.
Christopher Cviic, op. cit, p. 106.
55.
The New York Times, 27 May 1984, Section 4.
56.
The New York Times, 4 November 1984, Section 4.
57.
The Times, 23 May 1985.
58.
The New York Times, 20 January 1984, and 11 November 1984. See also, Radio Free Europe dispatch, 20 January 1984, 'Possible Establishment of Vatican-Polish Diplomatic Relations' .
59.
John Whale (ed.), The Pope from Poland: An Assessment (London: Collins, 1980), pp. 250-1.,
60.
See, for example, The New York Times, 28 February 1985.
61.
Dennis J. Dunn , Detente and Papal-Communist Relations, op. cit., p. 43.
62.
Dennis J. Dunn , 'The Vatican's Ostpolitik', op. cit.
63.
Ibid, p. 251. For example, in Czechoslovakia under a 1972 agreement, the Vatican was permitted to name four new bishops, all selected by the government from among the membership of the government-sponsored anti-Western priests' organisation Pacem in Terris.
64.
Ibid., and John Whale, op. cit, pp. 251-2.
65.
John Paul II, Return io Poland: The Collected Speeches of John Paul II (London: William Collins and Sons, 1979), p. 43.
66.
See John Whale, op. cit, p. 258.
67.
Quoted in Jacques Rupnik, 'The Vatican's new Ostpolitik and Church-State Relations in Eastern Europe', The World Today (Vol.' 35, No. 7, July 1979 ), p. 292.
68.
Le Monde, 25 February 1985.
69.
Concerning not giving advance notice to the Soviets, see Radio Liberty Research, 8 February 1983, 'Cardinal Julijans Vaivods and the Catholic Church in Latvia', p. 3.
70.
See, for example, The Times, 29 September 1984.
71.
V. Stanley Vardys, 'Polish Echoes in the Baltic', Problems of Communism (Vol. 32, July-August 1983), pp. 31-2.
72.
Chief among these are Monsignor Luigi Poggi and Monsignor Achille Silvestrini.
73.
Those who assert that the Pope's project has a realistic chance point to signs of an incipient religious revival in Eastern Europe. In Czechoslovakia, for example, an 'Underground Church' has developed in which groups of Catholics, many of them newly-religious teenagers and young adults, attend secret masses given by about 200 priests who have been denied government authorisation to practice their profession. Church attendance in most East European states has risen. Proponents of John Paul II's policy argue that stepped up repression might actually fuel the trend rather than extinguish it. However. as a Radio Free Europe Research report pointed out, the trend so far has been too limited to indicate a full-blown religious revival, and may be of minimal political significance. In addition, the Pope's hope of appealing to the masses directly in Prague and Vilna (Lithuania) were dashed recently by flat refusals from the Czechoslovak and Soviet governments. For discussion of a possible Eastern Europe religious revival, see Radio Free Europe Research Background Report No. 88 (Eastern Europe), op. cit.
74.
V, Stanley Vardys, op. cit, p. 27.
75.
Pedro Ramet, op. cit, p. 357.
76.
The New York Times, 28 February 1985.
77.
The Times, 25 April 1985.
78.
The Times, 4 September 1984.
79.
The New York Times, 20 June 1983.
80.
The New York Times, 26 June 1983.
81.
Zbigniew Brzezinski , 'Complex Motives', in ' The Pope and Poland: A Symposium', The New York Times, 3 July 1983, Section 4.
82.
Bogan Szajkowski, op. cit, pp. 158-9.
83.
The New York Times, 20 December 1983, 7 January 1984, 16 February 1984.
84.
Tadeusz Kaminski , 'Poland's Catholic Church and Solidarity: A Parting of Ways?', Poland Watch (No. 6, August 1984), p. 85.
85.
The Western authorities interviewed in March and April 1985 were James Brown, a former Radio Free Europe executive; Charles Andras, a Radio Free Europe staff writer and an expert on the Vatican and Eastern Europe; and Christopher Cviic, editor of The World Today. Of the three, Cviic argued most strongly that there is a genuine division between the Pope and Glemp.
86.
The New York Times, 3 March 1984. Glemp later stated that he believed the interview was 'off the record'. The New York Times, 4 March 1984.
87.
The New York Times, 4 November 1984.
88.
The Times, 25 April 1985.
89.
The New York Times, 20 January 1984.
90.
The New York Times, 12 May 1983 and 4 June 1983.
91.
The New York Times, 3 November 1984.
92.
The Times, 16 April 1985.
93.
The Times, 24 May 1985.
94.
Interviews with Ewa Celt, Radio Free Europe Research Polish staff, Munich, and staff of RFE Polish Samizdat Section, April 1985.
95.
In an April 1984 interview in the Milan daily, Avvenire, Walesa strongly endorsed the policies of the Church and, specifically, of Glemp. The article was quoted and summarised in English in a Radio Free Europe dispatch, 30 April 1984, 'Walesa Says Solidarity Alive and Strong'.
