The Politicisation of UN Specialised Agencies: A Preliminary Analysis

See UN Doc. A/37/1, 7 September 1982. On the present stage of international organisation, see Robert E. Cox , 'The Crisis of World Order and the Problem of International Organizations', International Journal (Vol. 25, No. 2, Spring 1980) and Marie-Claude Smouts , 'La crise des organisations intemationales ', Etudes (February 1983), pp. 165-173.

Academic analysis on.politicisation is not frequent. See, however, Gene M. Lyons , David A. Baldwin and Donald W. McNemar , 'The Politicization Issue in the UN Specialized Agencies', in David A. Kay (ed.), The Changing United Nations: Options for the United States ( New York: Praeger, 1977), pp. 81-92. See also, Manuela Tortora , Institution specialisée et organisation mondiale: Etude des relations de l'OIT avec la SDN et l'ONU (Brussels : Bruylant, 1980), pp. 412-438:

On the problem of co-ordination, see Evan Luard , International Agencies: The Emerging Framework of Interdependence (London : Macmillan, 1978), chapter 17, and Andre Lewin , 'La coordination au sein des Nation Unies: mission impossible?', Annuaire francais de droit international (Vol. 29, 1983), pp. 10-22. On the general evolution of Specialised Agencies; see Jeffrey Harrod , 'Problems of the United Nations Specialised Agencies at the Quarter Century', Yearbook of World Affairs (London: Stevens & Sons, 1974), pp. 187-203 and Evan Luard , 'Functionalism Revisited: The UN Family in the 1980s', International Affairs (Vol. 59, No. 4, Autumn 1983), pp. 677-692.

This is especially the case of the United States. See, in this connection, Daniel P. Moynihan , 'The United States in Opposition', Commentary (Vol. 59, March 1975). pp. 31-44.

For the special case of EEC member states, see Marlis G. Steinert , 'Un exemple de diplomatic de groupe: les activites de la CEE à Geneve', Relations internationales (No. 32, Winter 1982), pp. 543-560.

On the question of the dual interests of foreign affairs and technical ministries, see Raymond Ferretti , La coordination de l'action des organisations internationales au niveau europeen (Brussels: Bruylant, 1984), pp. 137ff.

See Michael Virally , Pierre Gerbet , Jean J.A. Salmon and Victor-Yves Ghebali , Les missions permanente auprès des organisations internationales. Vol. 1 (Brussels: Bruylant, 1971). Useful information can also be found in Vols. 2, 3 and 4.

See Ebere Osieke , 'Admission to Membership in International Organizations: The Case of Namibia', British Yearbook of International Law (Vol. 51, 1980), pp, 189-229.

See, for instance, Pei-heng Chiang , Non-Governmental Organizations at the United Nations: Identity. Role and Functions (New York : Praeger, 1981).

See, for instance, Bengt Broms , The Doctrine of Equality of States as Applied in International Organizations, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Helsinki, 1959.

See UNESCO Doc. 22 C/33,24 October 1983.

See Provisional Records of the 1983 International Labour Conference, No. 38, pp. 21-24.

Recent analyses on international secretariats are to be found in Lewis B. Kilbourne , Organizational and Political Conflict within the United Nations Secretariat (Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International, 1980); Norman A. Graham and Robert S. Jordan (eds.), The International Civil Service: Changing Role and Concepts (New York: Pergamon Press, 1980) and Robert 1. McLaren , Civil Servants and Public Policy. A Comparative Study of International Secretariats (Waterloo, Canada: Wilfrid LaurierU niversity Press: 1980 ).

See Warner J. Feld and Lewis B. Kilbourne , 'The UN Bureaucracy: Growth and Diversity', Revue internationale des sciences administratives (Vol. 43, No. 4, 1977), pp. 321-333; Paul C. Szasz , 'Unions of International Oflicials: Past, Present and Future', New York University Journal of International Law and Politics (Vol. 14, No. 2, Summer 1982), pp. 807-839, and Jean-Marie Becet , 'A propos de l'ombudsmanie; le mediateur et les organisations internationales', Human Rights Review (Vol. 10, No. 1, 1977), pp. 117-139.

For the UN quotas, see UN General Assembly Resolution 35/210 of 4 February 1971. See also Henri Reymond , 'The Representation of Nationalities in the Secretariat of the United Nations', Revue internationale des sciences administratives (Vol. 49, No. 4, 1983), pp, 349-360.

For the special case of the ILO, see Franz von Mutius , 'Planning for Stagnation or Innovation?', in Joseph H. Kaiser (ed.). Planung VI (Baden-Baden: Nomosverlagsgesellsehaft, 1972), pp. 137-156. Long-and medium-terms plans adopted within the ILO since 1970 are to be found in Docs. GB. 180/FA/6/4, GB/)85/FA/1316,GB. 192/PFA/16/1 and GB. 212/PFA/4/1.

For a development of this idea in the East-West context, see Franklin Griffiths , 'Cooperation as a Form of Conflict' The Atlantic Community Quarterly (Vol. 12, No. 4, Winter 1974/75), pp. 481-499.

On the origins of the concept of specialised agencies', see Manuela Tortora , op. cit, pp. 174-192. See, also, George A. Codding , 'The Relationship of the League of Nations and the United Nations with the Independent Agencies: A Comparison', Annals of International Studies (Vol. 1, 1970), pp.b5-87.

Besides the classic works of David Mitrany , Ernest B. Haas and James P. Sewell , see A.J.R. Groom and Paul Taylor (eds.), Functionalism. Theory and Practice in International Relations ( London: University of London Press, 1975). See also Andrew W. Green , 'Mitrany Reread with the Help of Haas and Sewell', Journal of Common Market Studies (Vol. 8, No. 1, September 1969), pp.50-69; Peter Wolf , 'International Organization and Attitude Change: A Re-examination of the Functionalist Approach', International Organization (Vol. 27, No. 3, Summer 1973), pp. 347-371 and Mark F. Imber , 'Re-Reading Mitrany: A Pragmatic Assessment of Sovereignty', British Review of International Studies (Vol. 10, No. 2. April 1984), pp. 103-123. For an early treatment, see Pitman B. Potter , 'Note on the Distinction between Political and Technical Questions', Political Science Quarterly (Vol. 50, No. 2, June 1935), pp. 264-271.

The notion of'interdependence' is far from being new. It can be found for instance in the works of early specialists such as Pitman B. Potter , 'Progress in International Cooperation', Political Science Quarterly (Vol. 50, No. 3, September 1935), p. 390.

Before the intrusion of the Middle East question, the problems of apartheid and of Portugal's African colonies were the most prominent instances of politicisation in the 1960s.

See the American protest in the framework of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Doc. EUR-405, 14 June 1984 and Daily Bulletin of the US Mission in Geneva (No. 61, 29 March 1984), p. I.

For a useful overall description of proposed international codes, see ILO Doc. G8.228/MNE/3/1, November 1984.

On the NWICO issue, see Victor-Yves Ghebali , 'La probiematique du Nouvel ordre mondial de l'information', Défense nationale (Vol. 34, December 1978), pp, 25-39.

See Victor-Yves Ghebali ,'L'UNESCO et le probleme de la formulation d'un droit a ]a communication', in Aspects du droit des medias. II (Fribourg: Editions Universitaires , 1984), pp. 245-257.

See, for instance, the debates of the 59th (1974) International Labour Conference concerning Israel and of the 22nd General Conference of UNESCO (1983) where American policy in Grenada, Lebanon and Central America was heavily attacked by many Third World and Eastern countries.

See Gregory Newell's declaration on the American unwillingness to 'see the 96 UN agencies become 96 general assemblies, discussing political issues (hat are the responsibility of the UN General Assembly'. Doc. Eur-206, Daily, Bulletin of the US Mission in Geneva (No. 45, March 1984).

See the speech of the Israeli delegate at the 59th session of the ILO in Record of Proceedings (1974). p. 418,

Israel has been condemned twice within the ILO: in 1974 and in 1980. Draft condemnatory resolutions failed to pass, however, in 1971, 1973. 1978 and 1983. On the politicisation of the ILO, see David Tajgman , 'Political Resolutions in the International Labour Organization: The Experience since 1964', Industrial Relations (Vol. 36, No. 3, 1981), pp. 499-529.

See Richard Hoggart , 'UNESCO in Crisis; The Israel Resolution ', New Universities Quarterly (Vol. 30, No. 1, 1975), pp. 15-23; Gordan Lang , 'UNESCO and Israel ', Harvard International Law Journal (Vol. 16, 1975), pp. 676-682 and Josette Beer-Gabel. , 'La participation d'Israël aux activites regionales de l'UNESCO: autopsie d'une crise', International Problems, Jerusalem (Vol. 18, 1979), pp. 66-88. For the ILO case, see Doc. GB. 225/20/21.

See Doc. EUR-1, Daily Bulletin of the US Mission in Geneva (No. 196, 18 October 1982), p. I.

Report on the Activities of Unesco and Co-operation with the Council of Europe, Rapporteur, Mr. Beix (Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe Doc. 5274, 20 September 1984), p. 29.

Declaration of Ambassador Alan Keyes, Daily Bulletin of the US Mission in Geneva (No. 193, 15 October 1984), p. 5.

See the declaration made by the American delegate at the 22nd General Conference of UNESCO, Doc. 22 C/VR.9 (provisional), p. 29.

Report on the Activities of Unesco and Co-operation with the Council of Europe, op.cit., p. 32.

See the declaration made by Ambassador Jean Gerard before the US Congress on 8 March 1984, Doc. EUR- 512, 9 March 1984.

Ibid. For more details, see Improvements Needed in UNESCO's Management, Personnel, Financial and Budgeting Practices. Report to the Committee on Foreign Affairs and Committee on Science and Technology, House of Representatives, by the Comptroller of the United States (Washington, DC: General Accounting Office, 1984), Doc. GAO/NSIAD-85-32.

On the official British position, see UNESCO Doc. 119 EX/30, 19 April 1984.

See Gregory T. Kruglak , The Politics of United States Decision-Making in United Nations Specialised Agencies: The Case of the International Labor Organization, 1970-1972 (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1980) and Walter Galemon , The International Labor Organization: An American View ( Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 198 1).

See Doc. GB. 198/22/11.

See Doc. GB. 200/PV, pp. IV/8-10.

See Report II to the 1979 International Labor Conference, p. 85. See also Docs. GB. 204/PFA/12/23 and GB. 204/PV (rev.), pp. III/I-8.

See Docs. GB. 205/PFA/6/3; GB. 205/PFA/6/4; GB. 205/PFA/6/16 and GB. 208/PFA/9/12.

See Mr. Newell's press conference of 23 January 1984 in Jerusalem. See also, Sustaining US Participation in the International Labor Organization Requires New Approaches. Report to the Chairman, Committee on Labor and Human Resources, United States Senate, by the Comptroller General of the United States (Washington, DC: General Accounting Office, 1984 ), Doc.GAO/NSIAD-84-85.

See ILO-Press. No. 47-84, 4 December 1984, pp. 1-2.

For the text of the Commission of Enquiry report on Poland, see ILO Official Bulletin (Vol. 57, 1984, series B, special supplement).

See Daily Bulletin of the US Mission in Geneva (No. 22 supplement, 20June 1983).

See The Guardian, 23 January 1984.

See UNESCO Doc. 119/EX/14.

Ibid.. Annex II,

See Victor-Yves Ghebali , 'Les Etats-Unis et l'UNESCO: Analyse d'une crise' Defense nationale (Vol. 40, May 1984), pp. 45-66. See also Evi Underhill , UNESCO and the American Challenge', Journal of International Trade Law (Vol. 18, No. 5, September-October 1984), pp. 381-395; Gordon Crovitz , 'The Decline and Fall of UNESCO', Encounter (Vol. 63, No. 5, December 1984), pp. 9-18; Brian Hocking , 'Words and Deeds: Why America left UNESCO ', The World Today (Vol. 41, No. 4, April 1985). pp. 75-78 and various Authors, 'The US Decision to Withdraw from UNESCO', Journal of Communication (Vol. 34, No. 4, Autumn 1984), p. 81-179.

On GATT, see Daily Bulletin of the US Mission in Geneva (No. 223, 28 November 1984), pp. 7-8.

See Daily Bulletin of the US Mission in Geneva (No. 180, 25 September 1 1984), pp. 1-4.

Since then, Mr. Alister Mclntyre (Grenada) has replaced Mr. Gamani Corea (Sri Lanka) as Secretary-General.

Undated position paper entitled, 'US Paper on North/South Dialogue and UNCTAD' (private source).

UNESCO Doc. 120 EX/3, 3 October 1984, Recommendations A.1 to A.19 and B.1 to B. 17.

Ibid., Recommendations C. 1 to C.8.

Ibid., Recommendations D. to D.8.

Ibid., Recommendations E(1).1 to E(1). 13; E(2).1 to E(2).5; E(3).1 to E(3).9; E(4).1 to E(4).4 and E(5).1 to E(5).4.

For a more detailed treatment, see Victor-Yves Ghebali , 'Vers la reforme de l'OIT', Annuaire francais de droit international (Vol. 30, 1984).

The deadlock is essentially caused by the problems of Israel's eligibility for the purpose of election in the Governing Body and the long-standing issue of the representation of Eastern countries' employers in the same Body.

Burton Yale Pines (ed.), A World without a UN: What Would Happen if the United Nations Shut Down ( Washington, DC: The Heritage Foundation, 1984).