Neutralism and Nonalignment: The Dialectics of Soviet Theory

V.I. Lenin. 'The Military Programme of the Proletarian Revolution', in V.I. Lenin. Collected Works (Moscow: Progress Publishers & London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1964), p. 86.

Neutrality is defined in Bol shaya Sowetskaya Entsiklopediya [Great Soviet Encyclopedia]. 2nd cd.. Vol. 29 (Moscow: Goanauchizd-vo 'Bol'shaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopcdiya', 1955). For an early discussion of the Hague Conventions, see E. Pashukanis. Ocherki po mezhdwaronomu pravu [Essays on International Law] (Moscow : Gosizd-vosovetskoye zakonodatel 'stvo, 1935). pp. 207-208.

Bol'shaya Sovetskaya Entsiktopedikya op. cit. The non-binding nature of unilaterally declared permanent neutrality is discussed in E.A. Korovin (ed.). Sorremnnoye minezhdunarodnoye publichnoye pravo [Contemporary international public law] (Moscow & Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoye izd-vo , 1926), p. 59.

E.A. Korovin , op. cit p. 57.

Treaties were signed with, for example, Turkey in 1925. Germany, Afghanistan and Latvia in 1926, and Iran in 1927. See A.A. Gromyko and B.N. Ponomarev (eds.). Istoriya vneshnei politiki SSSR, Tom pervvi. 1917-1945 [The history of the foreign policy or the USSR, Vol. I, 1917-1945] (Moscow : Nauka, 1980), pp. 221-234.

See, for example, D. Melnikov , 'Neutrality and the Current Situation ', International Affairs (Moscow) (No. 2. February 1956). pp. 74-81.

George Ginsburgs , 'Neutrality and neutralism and the tactics of Soviet diplomacy', American Slavic & East European Review (Vol. 19, No. 4. December 1960), p. 536.

E.A. Korovin (ed.), Mezhdunarodnove pravo [International Law] (Moscow: Gos. izd-vo yuridicheskoi literatury, 1951). p. 557.

For the advantages to the aggressor of non-interference, see S.I. Tyulpanov. 'Problema neitralizma slabo-razvitykh stran v svete reshenii XXII s"ezda KPSS' [The problem of the neutralism of underdeveloped countries in the light of the decisions of the 22nd Congress of the CPSU], Vestnik Leningradskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, No. 23. Seriya Ekonomika, filosofiya, pravo (Vypusk 4, 1961), pp. 16-34. The concept of non-interference has had a chequered career in Soviet legal thinking. In 1926 Korovin distinguished between 'reactionary' and 'progressive' intervention. See E.A. Korovin (ed.). 1926. op. cit. In 1951, after quoting Stalin at length on the subject, he criticised this as an 'unscientific' distinction, now insisting that interference is always an infringement of sovereignty and never progressive: see E.A. Korovin (ed.), 1951. op. cit, Soviet declaratory practice has retained the later definition, while Soviet policy clearly continues to make the distinction.

D. Melnikov , op. cit, p. 77.

E.M. Zhukov , 'Voprosy natsional'no-kolonial'noi, bor'by posle vtoroi mirovoi voiny' [Questions of the national-colonial struggle after the Second World War], Voprosy ekonomiki (No. 9. 1949), p. 58.

The proceedings of the 19th Congress of the CPSU are translated in Leo Gruliow (ed.), Current Soviet Policies I: The Documentary Record of the Nineteenth Communist Party Congress and the reorganization after Stalin's death (New York: Praeger, 1953). For further details about the offer made on 10 March 1952 of German reunification in return for non-participation in any coalition or military alliance directed against any power which had taken part in the war against Hitler, see A.A. Gromyko and B.N. Ponomarev (eds.), Istoriya yneshnei politiki SSSR. Chast'vtoroya, 1945-1970 [The History of the foreign policy of the USSR. Part 2. 1945-1970] (Moscow : Nauka, 1981), pp. 176-179. Vigor believes that the offer of a reunited, neutral Germany proves that the Soviet Union only lavours 'beneficial neutrality'. See Peter H. Vigor , The Soviet View of War, Peace and Neutrality (London & Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975), p. 187. But Soviet foreign policy is hardly unique in being self-interested, It should be noted, however, that there is some controversy about whether the Soviet offer ofa neutral Germany was sincere. See, for example, Adam B. Ulam , Expanssion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy 1917-1973 (New York: Praegcr, 1974), pp. 535-537.

For an interesting early discussion of Soviet tactics, see George Ginsburgs , op. cit, pp. 531-560. Ginsburgs maintains that when the Soviet Union is strong a dichotomous view of the world prevails. But in the face of a united, hostile West. the idea of a neutral, third force becomes more acceptable.

See 'The Soviet-Finnish Treaty'. New Times (No. 16, 14 April 1948). pp. 1-3 for comments on the early treaty, and E.A. Ambartsumov , Sovetstsko-finlyandskiye otnossheniya [Soviet-Finnish Relations] (Moscow: Gospolitizdat. 1956) for the renegotiated version.

The Soviet Union was, of course, not alone in disapproving of neutrality for its allies. Dulles' view that 'neutrality is an immoral and short-sighted conception' is often quoted. The pejorative term Finlandisation was coined to express Western fears of neutnalism.

Khrushchev's report is translated in Leo Gruliow (ed.). Current Soviet Policies II: The Documentary Record of the 20th Communist Party Congress and its Aftermath ( London: Atlanta Press, distributed by Thames and Hudson. 1957). pp. 33-38.

Although Soviet theorists used these terms interchangeably in the fifties, only 'neutrality' and 'permanent neutrality' were defined in the 1955 edition of the Bol-shaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya op. cit., and in B. Ponomarev (ed.). Politicheskii stovar [Political Dictionary] (Moscow: Gosizd-vo politicheskoi literatury, 1958). By 1980, in L.A. Onikov and N.V. Shishkin (eds.), Krulkii politicheskii slovar' [Short Political Dictionary] (Moscow: Politizdat , 1980), the following distinctions were made: 'permanent neutrality' (agreed by international law); 'traditional neutrality' (observed over a long period); and 'positive neutrality' (following a policy of nonalignment). 'Neutralism' has a separate entry ('the policy of states which have declared neutrality to be the main principle of their relationships with other states and groups of states, e.g., Switzerland'). There is no separate entry for 'nonalignment'.

The extent to which this was and still remains conventional wisdom is demonstrated by the frequency with which the identical wording is used. For a few of the innumerable examples, see L. Modjoryan , 'Neutrality ', New Times (No. 8. February 1956), pp. 12-15; E.A. Korovin , 'The problem of Neutrality Today', International Affairs (Moscow) (No. 3, 1958), pp. 36-40; A. Galina , 'Problema neitraliteta v sovremennom mezhdunarodnom prave' [The problem of neutrality in contemporary international lawl, in Sovetskii ezhegodnik mezhdunarodnogo prava 1958 (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1959), pp. 200-229; O.I. Tiyunov , '0 razvitii ponyatiya neitraliteta gosudarstv' [About the development of the concept of the neutrality of states], Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta, Seriya 10, Pravo (No. 4, oktyabr' -dekabr', Moscow: Izd-vo Moskovskogo universiteta, 1965), pp. 30-38; V.G. Khabirov , '0 mezhdunarodno-pravovykh aspektakh neprisoyedineniya' [On the intemational legal aspects of nonalignment] , Sovetskoye gosudarstvo i prow (No. 12, December 1973), pp. 111-117; Ya. Ya. Etinger , 'Drizheniye neprisoyedineniya:'aktualnye problemy' [The nonaligned movement: urgent problems], Narody Azii i Afriki (No. 6, 1981), pp. 3-13; R.A. Tuzmukhamedov , 'Neprisoyedineniye: nekotorye. voprosy mezhdunarodnogo prava' [Nonalignment: some questions of international law], Sovetskogo gosudarstvu i pravo (No. 6, 1981), pp. 113 -120.

See, for example, D. Melnikov , op. cit, and E.A. Korovin (1958). op. cit

A. Galina , op. cit, p. 203. Nonetheless, Galina and other theorists urged neutrals to increase their co-operation with socialist countries with whom they formed a broad zone of peace. See also D.I. Baratshvili , 'Pozitivnyi neitratitet v sovremennom mezhdunarodnom prave' [Positive neutrality in contemporary international law], Sovetskoye gosudarstvo i pravo (No. 6, 1963), pp. 95-103.

Ya. Ya. Etinger and O.N. Melikyan , Neitralizm i mir: Neitralistskaya politiki stran Azii i Afriki [Neutralism and peace: the neutralist policy of the countries of Asia and Africa] (Moscow: Izd-vo "Mysl"', 1964), pp. 10-11.

E.M. Fedotova , SSHA i neprisoyedinivshiesya strany [The USA and the nonaligned countries] (Moscow: Nauka, Glavnaya redaktsiya vostochnoi literatury. 1975). p. 4.

Soviet military agreements with Third World states tend to be confined to aid agreements and a few friendship treaties. See Jonathan Steele , World Power: Soviet Foreign Policy Under Brezhnev and Andropov (London : Michael Joseph, 1983). pp. 171-173.

B.V. Ganyushkin , Sovremennyi neitralitet [Contemporary neutrality] (Moscow: lzd-vo IMO, 1958), p. 83.

For discussions of the differences between the new neutralism and traditional permanent neutrality, see V.N. Durdenevskii , 'Ncitralitet v sisteme kollektivnoi bezopasnosti' [Neutrality in a system of collective security]. Soveskove gosudarstvo i pravo (No. 8, 1957), pp. 81-91, A. Galina , op. cit. and S.I. Tyulpanov , op. cit

O.l. Tiyunov. op. cit, p. 35.

For the various views in this uncharacteristicalfy public debate, see E.A. Korovin (ed.), (1951) op. cit, E.A. Korovin (1958) op. cit. A. Galina , op. cit, and Yu. Ya. Mikheev , 'Vopros o sovmestimosti statusa postoyannogo neitraliteta s obyazannostyami chlena OON' [The question of the compatibility of the status of permanent neutrality with the obligations of a member of the UNO], Sovetskii ezhegodnik niczhdunaroilnono prava 1960 ( Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1961), pp. 167-176.

R.L. Bobrov and M.P. Lukichev , Induskaya politika neprisoyedineniya i sovremennoye mezhdunarodnoye pravo' [The Indian policy of nonalignment and contemporary international law], I esfnik Lenittgratskogo gosudarstvennogo universierta. No. 23, Seriya Ekonomika, tilosoliya, pravo (Vypusk 4, f 977), pp. 135-142.

R.A. Ulyanovskii , Sotsializm iosvobodivshiyesya stany [Socialism and the liberated countries] Moscow: Glavnaya redaktsiya vostoshnoi literatury, 1972), p. 467.

Friendship treaties were signed with India and Egypt in 1971, with Iraq in 1972, Somalia 1974, Mozambique 1977, Angola, Afghanistan. Ethiopia and Vietnam in 1978. Yemen in-1979 and Syria in 1980. Egypt and Somalia both later abrogated their treaties. For the compatibility of these treaties with nonaligned status, see R.A. Tuzmukhamedov , op. cit

P. Artem'ev . "Neprisoyedineniye- vazhnyi faktor mirovoi politiki' [Nonalignment-an important factor in world politics], Minmiva ekanomika i mezhdumirodove otnosheniya (No. 3, March 198 1), p. 64.

See, for example, the disclaimer of Soviet responsibility in R.A. Tuzmukhamedov , Neprisoyedineniye i razryadka mezahdnarodnoi napryazhennosti (Nonalignment and international detente) (Moscow: lzd-vo IMO, 1976).

For a report of the nonaligned Summit Conference in Havana, see Keesing's Contemporary Archives (Vol. 26, No. 48. 1980; Edinburgh : Longmans, 1980). pp. 30037-30042.

P. Artem'ev , op. cit, p. 64. For the post-invasion votes in the UN, see J. Fullerton , The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (Hong Kong; Far Eastern Economic Review, 1983), pp. 39-40. The New Delhi Nonaligned Summit is reported in Kessing's Contemporary Archives. (Vol. 29; No. 8, 1983), op. cit., pp. 32349-32355.

For a discussion of some of the contradictions in Soviet thinking, see Daniel Tarschys , 'Neutrality and the Common Market: The Soviet View', Co-operation and Conflict (Vol. 6, No. 2, 1971), pp. 65-75.

The differences between European neutrals and between the neutrals and the nonaligned is discussed in Ya. Ya. Etinger and O.N. Melikyan , op. cit

E.A. Korovin (1958), op. cit, p. 39.

S.I. Tyulpanov , op. cit, p. 33.

The arguments against Austrian membership of, or association with, the EEC, are considered in G. Osnitskaya , 'Neutrality and the Common Market ', International Affairs (Moscow) (No. 6, 1962), pp. 52-55.

On the mutual distrust of Finnish and Irish neutrality, see J.W. Burton. A.J.R. Groom , M. Light , C.R. Mitchell & D.J. Sandole , Britain between East and West: A Concerned Independence (Aldershot: Gower, 1984), pp. 60-64.

See, for example, Ya. Ya. Etinger and O.N. Melikyan , op. cit A rare exception is R.A. Tuzmukhamedov (1976), op. cit, who praises Tito's contribution fulsomely.

N.S. Khrushnev. Report to the 21st Congress of the CPSU, translated in Leo Gruliow (ed.), Current Soviet Policies, III: The Documentary Record of the 21st Extraordinary Communist Party Congress of the Soviet Union (New York: Praeger. 1960), p. 62.

Statement of the Meeting of Representatives of the Communist & Workers' Parties November 1960, Documents supplement to New Times (No. 50, 1960 ), p. 15. In fact, nonalignment was a weapon in the dispute, rather than a cause. The underlying issues had less to do with Yugoslavia's foreign policy than with the extent to which 'national communism' could and would be permitted within the bloc. For a detailed exposition of the debates, see Z. Brzezinski , The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1967), particularly Chapter 13.

N.S. Khrushchev , Report to the 22nd Congress of the CPSU, translated in Charlotte Saikowski and Leo Gruliow (eds.), Current Soviet Policies, IV The Documentary Record of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (New York & London : Colombia University Press, 1962 ), p. 48.

Peter Vigor , op. cit, p. 191.

For Khrushchev's report to the 20th Party Congress, see Leo Gruliow (ed.), II, op. cit., and for his report to the 21st Congress, see Leo Gruliow (ed.), III, op. cit

N.S. Khrushchev , in Charlotte Saikowski and Leo Gruliow (eds.) IV, op. cit , p. 49.

Statement of the Meeting of Representatives of the Communist & Workers' Parties November 1960, op. cit, and ' The Programme of the CPSU'. in Herbert Ritvo (ed.), The New Soviet Society (New York : The New Leader. 1962), p. 102.

O. Kuusinen (ed.), Fundamentals of Marxism-Leninism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1961), p. 500 and passim.

L.I. Brezhnev , O Vneshnei polilike KPSS i .Suvet.skrigo kasudar.stva: Rechi i stalyi [On the foreign policy of the CPSU and the Soviet state: speeches and articles] (Moscow: Izd-vo politicheskoi litcratury, 1973).

In his reports to the 25th and 26th Congresses of the CPSU in 1976 and 1981, for example, Brezhnev used the term nonalignment once only in each report, although he spent considerable time talking about the national liberation movement. See L.I. Brezhnev , Repor, of the CC CPSU to the XXV Congress of the CPSU, in Documents and Resolutions: XXV Congress of the CPSU (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, 1976), pp. 5-107, and L.I. Brezhnev , Report of the Central Committee of the CPSU to the XXVI Congress of the Soviet Union and the Immediate Tasks of the Party in Home and Foreign Policy (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, 1981).