Perception of State-interaction in Diplomatic History: A Case for an Interdisciplinary Approach between History and Political Science

Alexander George , 'The Operational Code; A Neglected Approach to the Study of Political Leaders and Decision-Making', International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 13, No. 2, 1969), p. 190.

Michael Brecher , Blema Steinburg and Janice Stein, 'A Framework for Research on Foreign Policy Behaviour', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 4, No. 3, 1969), p. 86.

The importance of perception as a factor for analysis has been recognised by authors as diverse as John Burton and Hannes Adomeit. See, for example, John W. Burton , 'Theory and Reality', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 4, No. 3, 1975-76), pp. 251-262; and Hannes Adomeit , 'Soviet Perceptions of Western European Integration: Ideological Distortion or Realistic Assessment ', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 8, No. 1, 1979), pp. 1-24.

For a discussion of the relevancy of history to the study of international relations, and to the analysis of crises in particular, see Arthur N. Gilbert and Paul G. Lauren , 'Crisis Management: An Assessment and Critique', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 24, No. 4, 1980), pp. 641-646; and Ole R. Holsti , 'Historians, Social Scientists and Crisis Management', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 24, No- 4, 1980), pp. 665 -682.

Quoted in H. Ford Towbridge , 'Towards a Better Relation between History and Political Science', Government and Opposition (Vol. 7, No. 2. 1972), p. 207.

Paul G. Lauren , 'Diplomacy, History, Theory and Policy', in Paul G. Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory and Policy (New York: The Free Press, 1979), p. 12.

Richard A- Broody , Ole R. Holsti and Robert C. North , 'Measuring Affect and Action in International Reactions Models: Empirical Materials from the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis', in James Rosenau (ed.), International Politics and Foreign Policy, revised edition (New York: The Free Press, 1969), pp. 683-685.

For a more detailed discussion of input-output analysis in foreign policy decision-making, see Michael Brecher , Blema Steinburg and Janice Stein, op. cit, pp. 79-88.

Robert Jervis , 'Hypotheses on Misperception', in James Rosenau (ed.), op. cit, p. 239.

See Michael Brecher , Blema Steinburg and Janice Stein, op. cit, p. 84.

Alexander George , op. cit, p. 191.

Chamberlain to Salisbury, 18 September 1899, quoted in James L. Garvin , The Life of Joseph Chamberlain, Vol. III (London: Macmillan, 1934 ), p. 334.

Malet to Salisbury, private correspondence, 19 April 1890, Public Records Office, FO 343/11, f. 62 (Malet Papers).

Ole R. Holsti , 'The Belief System and National Images: A Case Study', in James Rosenau (ed.), op. cit, p. 545.

Robert Axelrod , 'Schema Theory: An Information Processing Model of Perception and Cognition ', American Political Science Review (Vol. 67, No. 4, 1973), p. 1248.

Robert Jervis in James Rosenau (ed.), op. cit, p. 240.

Leon Festinger , A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance ( New York: Row Peterson and Co., 1957), p. 3.

See, for example, Robert Jervis ,Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), pp. 291-295.

Christer Jonsson , 'Introduction', in Christer Jonsson (ed.), Cognitive Dynamics and International Politics (London: Frances Pinter, 1982), p. 3.

Karl W. Deutsch and Richard L. Merritt , 'Effects of Events on National and International Images', in H. Kelman (ed.), International Behaviour: A Social- Psychological Analysis (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1965), p. 147.

See Robert Jervis , op. cit, pp. 297-300- The relation between beliefs within a given belief system is a salient feature of the operational code approach, see Alexander George , op. cit, pp. 216-220; and Gunnar Sjoblom , 'Some Problems of the Operational Code Approach', in Christer Jonsson (ed.), op cit, pp. 49-54.

Christer Jonsson and Ulf Westerland , 'Role Theory in Foreign Policy Analysis ', in Christer Jonsson (ed.), op. cit, p. 216; see also K.J. Holsti , 'National Role Conceptions in the Study of Foreign Policy', International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 14, No. 3, 1970), pp. 233-309.

Christer Jonsson and Ulf Westerland in Christer Jonsson (ed.), op. cit, p. 217.

Graham T. Allison , 'Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis ', The American Political Science Review (Vol. 63, No. 3, 1969), p. 711.

Graham T. Allison and Morton H. Halperin , 'Bureaucratic Politics: A Paradigm and Some Policy Implications', World Politics (Vol. 24, No. 1, 1972), p. 48.

See, Ole R. Holsti , 'The Operational Code Approach: Some Problems and Some Solutions', in Christer Jonsson (ed.), op. cit, pp. 78-79.

Margaret G. Hermann , 'Explaining Foreign Policy Behaviour Using the Personal Characteristics of Political Leaders', International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 24, No. 1, 1980), pp. 8-10.

See, Daryl J, Bem , 'Self-Perception Theory', in L. Beikowitz (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (New York and London: Academic Press, 1972), pp. 1-62; Edward E. Jones and Richard E. Nisbett , The Actor and the Observer: Divergent Perceptions of the Causes of Behaviour', in E. Jones , D. Kanause, et al. (eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the Cause of Behaviour ( Morristown, NJ: Greater Learning Press, 1971 ), pp. 79-94; and Harold E. Kelley , 'The Process of Causal Attribution', The American Psychologist (Vol. 28, No. 2,1973), pp. 107-128.

Marc Bloch , The Historian's Craft (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1979), p. 64-

See Arthur J. Marder , The Anatomy of British Sea Power: A History of British Naval Policy in the Pre-Dreadnought Era 1880-1905 ( Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1964); Arthur J. Marder , From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, Vol. I: The Road to War 1904- 1914 (London: Oxford University Press, 1961); and Pieter Padfield , The Great Naval Race: The Anglo-German Naval Rivalry 1900-1914 ( New York: David McKay Co., 1974).

Eyre Crowe , 'Memorandum on the Present State of British Relations with France and Germany' , 1 January 1907, British Document on the Origins of the War, Vol. III ( London: HMSO, 1928). p- 403.

Paul Kennedy , The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism: 1860-1914 (London ; George Allen and Unwin , 1980), p. 254-

See, Zara S. Steiner , Britain and the Origins of the First World War (London: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 24-33.

Quoted in George Monger , The End of Isolation: British Foreign Policy 1900-1907.

See, Zara S. Steiner , op. cit, p. 32.

See Paul Kennedy , op. cit, p. 255.

Graham T. Allison , op. cit, p. 700.

Robert Jervis in James Rosenau (ed.), op. cit, p. 240.

Memorandum Crowe, 1 January 1907, British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol. III ( London : HMSO, 1928), p. 417.

Daniel Heradstveit , The Israeli-Arab Conflict: Psychological Obstacles to Peace (Oslo: Universitetsforaget , 1979), p. 11.

Ibid., p. 21.

Memorandum Grey, 6 August 1908, British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol. VII (London : HMSO, 1932), p. 174.

Minute Grey , 22 October 1908, quoted in David Dilks, Retreat from Power: Studies in Britain's Foreign Policy in the Twentieth Century , Vol. I (London: Macmillan, 1981), p. 6.

Memorandum Grey, 6 August 1908, British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol. VII (London : HMSO, 1932), p. 174.

Christer Jonsson , 'Introduction', in Christer Jonsson (ed.), op cit, p. 7.

Ibid., p. 9.