The Place of the European Community in the Foreign Policy of British Governments,1961-1971

See J. Frankel , British Foreign Policy 1945-73 (London: Oxford University Press 1975), pp. 237-44 and F.S. Northedge , British Foreign Policy (London: Allen & Unwin , 1962), p. 308 for general discussions of the attitude of British politicians and public opinion to the idea of European integration in a supranational form. See also M. Beloff , New Dimensions in Foreign Policy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1961), especially Chap. 4, for the earlier 'pragmatic' objections to supranationalism. All three governments examined here argued that, while some had hoped that the EEC might develop into a supranational entity and while it might yet develop in that direction in the future, the EEC as it existed was not such an entity and neither did the governments concerned want it to be so. For the specific governments see: H. Macmillan , At the End of the Day (London: Macmillan, 1973), pp. 22-23 and 529-32; M. Laing , Edward Heath: Prime Minister (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1972), p. 127 (for Macmillan); A. Sampson , Macmillan, A Study in Ambiguity (London: Allen Lane , 1967), pp. 213-4 (for contrasting views of Home): H. Wilson , The Labour Government 1964-70 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971), p. 218 & p. 333; P. Foot , The Politics of Harold Wilson (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 224 (for Wilson in opposition): D. C. Watt , and J. Mayall , (eds.) Current British Foreign Policy, 1970 (London : Temple Smith, 1971), p. 13 (for Wilson) and p. 675 (for Rippon); and D. C. Watt , and J. Mayall , (eds.) Current British Foreign Policy 1971 (London : Temple Smith, 1973), pp. 101-2, p. 233, pp. 376-77, p. 381 and p. 383 (for Heath's treatment of the topic).

See J. Frankel , op. cit, pp. 151-173. Frankel's interpretation is intended to show the declining importance of the concept. Nevertheless, he suggests that 'the evolution of Britain's post-war foreign policy can be subsumed under and even partly explained by, the evolution of the successive conceptions of her world role.' For specific formulations by Macmillan, Wilson and Heath see the following: H. Wilson, Purpose in Politics, (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1964), p. 6; H. Macmillan , op. cit, p. 13, p. 529 and p. 531 ; A. Sampson , op. cit, p. 214 and p. 217; J. Frankel , op. cit, p. 156; D.C. Watt and J. Mayall (1971), op. cit, p. 88 and p. 99; P. Foot , op. cit, p. 235; J. Frankel op. cit, p. 156; W.J. Feld , The European Community in World Affairs (Port Washington : Alfred Publishing Company, 1976 ), p. 90 for the White Paper formulation; D.C. Watt and J. Mayall (1971), op. cit, p. 617; D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1973), op cit, p. 100. Also M. Laing , op cit, pp. 230-1 for her view of Heath's objectives.

See 'Preface: Some Headaches of Contemporary History' in U. Kitzinger Diplomacy and Persuasion: How Britain Joined the Common Market , (London: Thames & Hudson, 1973) for a discussion of the problem of perspectives on contemporary history.

See F.S. Northedge , Descent from Power: British Foreign Policy 1945-73 (London : Allen & Unwin, 1974), Chap. 1 1, for an account of the shift towards 'Europe' in British foreign policy.

See Britain and the European Communities H.M.S.O. London 1964, and H. Macmillan, op cit., pp. 1-6 for the political articulation of why Britain should join the EEC.

H. Macmillan, op cit., p. 6.

Summary of the opening statement of the British position made by Edward Heath on 10 October 1961, cited in Britain and the European Communities, op. cit., p. 23.

F. S. Northedge, (1974) op. cit., pp. 337-8.

P. Foot, op cit., p. 225. Although this quotation is from 1963 it still serves to illustrate both Wilson's commitment to holding on to the initiative on the question of British membership of the EEC and the general wariness with which he later treats the other members of the EEC.

H. Wilson , (1971) op cit, p. 238. This may be compared with Macmillan op cit., p. 349.

H. Wilson, (1971) op cit., p. 299.

See P. Foot, op cit., pp. 235-6 and H. Wilson, (1971) op cit., p. 300 for examples of Wilson's use of the technology theme.

H. Wilson, (1971) op cit., p. 300.

See in particular Wilson's election speech of March 1966 in U. Kitzinger , The Second Try: Labour and the EEC (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1968), pp. 111-2.

For numerous examples of these see P. Foot, op cit., H. Wilson, (1964) op cit., and H. Wilson, The New Britain (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964).

This interpretation is developed from the chapter on 'America, Commonwealth or Common Market' in P. Foot, op cit., which describes Wilson's increasing dissatisfaction with the Americans under President Johnson. See in particular pp. 233-4. This is, nevertheless, a difficult area. While there is no shortage of accounts by other members of Wilson's government with regard to the beneficial effects of EEC membership on Britain's world role, as Douglas Evans points out in While Britain Slept (London: Gollancz, 1975), 'Harold Wilson's memoirs cast very little light on what motivated him personally to apply for entry into the EEC in 1967.' (p. 60). Evans suggests it was the increasing number of pro Marketeers in the Cabinet, the influence of the civil service, the advantages of stealing Heath's thunder and the technology theme as well as the idea 'that Britain's entry would restore her position at the top table.' (p. 61). See also J. Frankel, op cit., pp. 164-7 for an account of Wilson's efforts to sustain the world role. See finally H. Wilson, (1964), op cit., pp. 7-8, p. 12, pp. 215-6 and pp. 110-12.

See F. S. Northedge, (1974), op cit., pp. 354-355 for details of the final conditions of entry.

D.C. Watt , and J. Mayall , (1973) op cit, p. 880 for Heath on the difficulties of isolation and standing alone with regard to Britain's trading position. For foreign policy in particular see p. 331 and p. 656.

See G. Goodwin , 'British Foreign Policy Since 1945: The Long Odyssey to Europe' in M. Leifer , (ed.) Constraints and Adjustments in British Foreign Policy, (London: 1972), pp. 39-40 for Macmillan's and wider bipartisan attitudes to European integration before 1960.

H. Macmillan , op cit., pp. 22-3.

H. Macmillan , op cit., p. 112.

H. Macmillan , op cit., p. 23.

H. Macmillan , op cit., p. 112.

See M. Beloff, op cit., pp. 88-117; J. Frankel, op cit., pp. 236-40 and F. S. Northedge, (1974) op cit., pp. 332-4 for general treatments of this attitude. See, in particular, H. Macmillan , Riding the Storm ( London: Macmillan, 1971), p. 450 and H. Macmillan , (1973) op cit., p. 15 and p. 112.

H. Macmillan , (1973) p. 5, p. 119, p. 354 and p. 367.

H. Macmillan , (1973) op. cit., pp. 19-21.

H. Macmillan , (1973) op cit. pp. 22-3.

H. Macmillan , (1973) op. cit, p. 529, p. 531 and p. 549 and A. Sampson , op. cit, p. 214 and p. 217.

G. Brown , In My Way (London: Gollancz, 1971), p. 221.

H. Wilson , (1971) op cit, 335 and 299.

H. Wilson , (1971) op cit, p. 328, p. 342 and p. 370. See also H. Wilson , Final Term: The Labour Government 1974-6 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1979), p. 88.

H. Wilson , (1971) op cit, pp. 367-8.

H. Wilson , (1971) op cit, pp, 343-4.

H. Wilson , (1971) op cit, p. 333.

See Footnote 16. Again, it is difficult to ascertain Wilson's views. His treatment of EEC membership, in contrast to some of his colleagues, rarely strays from a reiteration of the 'right terms' for Britain and the technological potential of the Community. We can, however, point to instances of Wilson's earlier commitments to a world rôle for Britain. H. Wilson , (1964) op cit, pp. 7-8, p. 12, pp. 215-216, pp. 110-112. H. Wilson , The New Britain, op cit, p. 133, and P. Foot , op cit, p. 235. Also see J. Frankel , op cit, p. 165.

H. Macmillan , (1973) op cit, pp. 22-23; H. Wilson , (1971) op cit, p. 330 and p. 343; J.L. Zaring , ibid, p. 176.

W.J. Feld , op cit, p. 90.

D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1971), op cit, p. 642; D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1973), op cit, pp. 231-234, p. 372, p. 330 and p. 405.

D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1973), op cit, p. 10, p. 101, p. 303, p. 380, p. 545, p. 586 and p. 647.

D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1973), op cit, pp. 545-546.

See conclusion of 1971 White Paper in W. J. Feld, op cit.

D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1973), op cit, p. 585.

D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1973), op cit, p. 585.

A. Sampson , op cit, p. 211, p. 214 and p. 217; J. Frankel , op cit, p. 156; D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1971), op cit, p. 362 and p. 641; D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1973), op cit, p. 18, p. 231 and pp. 879-880.

A. Sampson , op cit, p. 250 and J. Frankel , op cit, p. 163.

H. Macmillan , (1973), op cit, pp. 25-6.

G. Brown , op cit, p. 207.

G. Brown , op cit, p. 209.

D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1973), op cit, pp. 484-485, p. 657.

The close identification of Britain with Europe is well-illustrated by a speech made in 1970 in which Heath uses 'us' and 'our' to mean variously Britain and Europe, in D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1971), op cit, p. 617. On the other hand, for evidence of continued commitment to the British world role see D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1973), op cit, p. 231.

Cited in G. Goodwin op. cit, pp. 47-48.

See D.C. Watt and J. Mayall , (1971), op cit, pp. 507-513.