States and Homelands : the Social and Geopolitical Implications of National Territory

For this interstate role of ethnicity see A. Said and L. Simmons (eds.), Ethnicity in an International Context (New Brunswick: Transactions Books, 1976). For states and nations see H. Seton-Watson , Nations and States (London : Methuen, 1977) and L. Tivey (ed.), The Nation-State (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1981). On ethnic dependency, M. Hechter, Internal Colonialism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul , 1975) and Ethnic and Racial Studies (Volume 2, No. 3, 1979) devoted to this topic.

See M. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1977); D. Glazer and D. Moynihan (eds.), Ethnicity, Theory and Experience (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975); E. Burgess "The Resurgence of Ethnicity", Ethnic and Racial Studies (Volume 1, No. 3, 1978), pp. 265-285; A.D. Smith , The Ethnic Revival (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).

W. Connor , "Nation-building or Nation-destroying?", World Politics Vol. 24, 1972), pp. 319-55; W. Connor , "Ethno-nationalism in the First World", in Esman (ed.), op. cit.

On this important distinction see B. Akzin, State and Nation ( London: Hutchinson, 1964); L. Tivey , "Introduction" in Tivey (ed.), op. cit.

For documentation on the rise of national states in the West see C. Tilly (ed.), The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975); A. Bozeman , Politics and Culture in International History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960). For a sociological account see G. Poggi , The Development of the Modern State (London: Hutchinson, 1978).

Weber, among others, stressed the political dimensions of the "prestige sentiments" of nations and hence their close links with the state. See M. Weber , Economy and Society (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968), Part III, Chapter 3.

For the debate on the definitions of ethnicity cf. Burgess, op. cit. and the essays by Brass and Robinson in D. Taylor and M. Yapp (eds.), Political Identity in South Asia (London: Curzon Press, 1979). In adopting a mildly "primordialist" definition I depart from, inter alia, F. Barth (ed.), Ethnic Groups and Boundaries ( Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1969 ) and follow C. Geertz , "The Integrative Revolution", in C. Geertz (ed.), Old Societies and New States (New York: Free Press , 1963); R. Schermerhorn , Comparative Ethnic Relations (New York: Random House, 1970) and J. Fishman "Social Theory and Ethnography; Language and Ethnicity in Eastern Europe"; in P. Sugar (ed.), Ethnic Diversity and Conflict in Eastern Europe (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 1980).

On these origins in space and time see R. Debray , "Marxism and the National Question", New Left Review 105 (1977), pp. 20-41. On the Turkish case see B. Lewis , The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford University Press, 1968). On Israel, D. Vital , The Origins of Zionism (London: Oxford University Press , 1975).

For these early regional communities see R. Braidwood and G. Willey (eds.), Courses Towards Urban Life (Chicago: Aldine, 1962) and M. Mallowan , Early Mesopotamia and Iran (London: Thames and Hudson , 1965).

On the idea in ancient Sumer see S.N. Kramer , The Sumerians (Chicago: Chicago University Press , 1963) and in ancient Israel, Y. Kauffman , The Religion of Israel (London: Allen and Unwin , 1961).

For example, Virgil's Georgics and Horace's Odes.

On Rousseau's nationalism see A. Cohler , Rousseau and Nationalism (New York: Basic Books, 1970}. For German and Russian "populism" see G. Mosse , The Crisis of German Ideology (New York: Grosset and Dunlop, 1964) and F. Venturi , The Roots of Revolution (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson , 1960).

On this movement see, for example, the exhibition catalogue, Royal Academy of Arts, Post-Impressionism (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1979).

K. Wittfogel , Oriental Despotism (New Haven : Yale University Press, 1957).

J. Plamenatz , "Two Types of Nationalism", in E. Kamenaka (ed.), Nationalism ( London: Edward Arnold, 1976).

Seton-Watson , op. cit, Chapter 1.

The functionalist element can be found in E. Gellner's arguments in his Thought and Change (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1964), Chapter 7 and in his "Scale and Nation", Philosophy of the Social Sciences 3(1973), pp. 1-17.

E. Hobsbawm , "Some Reflection on 'The Break-up of Britain "', New Left Review 105 (1977), pp. 3-23.

J. Steinberg , Why Switzerland ? (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1976 ).

A fact underlined by Weber in his Ancient Judaism ( New York: Free Press, 1952).

On the Polish case see O. Halecki , A History of Poland ( London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1955 , rev. ed.) and P. Brock , "Polish Nationalism", in P. Sugar and I. Lederer (eds.), Nationalism in Eastern Europe ( Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1969).

For the German and Prussian case see H. Kohn , The Mind of Germany (London: Macmillan, 1965) and more generally, Seton-Watson , op. cit. and Tilly, op. cit

For the links between nationalism and aggression, Z. Barbu , "Nationalism as a Source of Aggression", in Ciba Foundation, Conflict (London, 1968); For a partial critique, see A.D. Smith , "War and Ethnicity", Ethnic and Racial Studies (Volume 4, No. 4, 1991), pp. 375-397.

H. Kohn , Prelude to Nation-States (Princeton: van Nostrand, 1967) discusses the French case of "natural frontiers" and the associated plebiscites in the Revolutionary era.

For histories of these additions, H. Kohn , Nationalism and Liberty: The Swiss Example (New York: Macmillan , 1957) and G. Thürer , Free and Swiss (London: Oswald Wolff, 1970).

B. Lewis , op. cit., and more generally, N. Berkes , The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1964).

L. Wirth , "Types of Nationalism", American Journal of Sociology 41 (1936), pp. 723-37. Here he designates a special category of such nationalisms.

On the Ethiopian case, see, for example, R. Hess , "Ethiopia", in G. Carter (ed.), National Unity and Regionalism in Eight African States (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966) and I.L. Markowitz , Power and Class in Africa (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1977), pp. 165-7.

I. Lewis , The Modern History of Somaliland (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980, 2nd. ed).

P. Katzenstein , "Ethnic Political Conflict in South Tyrol", in Esman (ed.), op. cit.

Some examples of national dreams of regeneration are cited in E. Kedourie (ed.), Nationalism in Asia and Africa (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971).

Examples of Arab historiography on the Israeli-Palestinian dispute are cited in S. Haim (ed.), Arab Nationalism: An Anthology (Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press, 1962).

The notion of "political community" on the Swiss model, which overrides "primordial" attachments, has a long history on which, for Europe, see R. Bendix , Nation-building and Citizenship (New York: John Wiley, 1964). More generally, G. Almond and L. Pye (eds.), Comparative Political Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965).

Brittany provides an illuminating Western example where the administrative borders, historic frontiers and language do not coincide. See, for example, S. Berger , "Bretons and Jacobins: Reflections on French Regional Ethnicity", in Esman, op. cit. For a partial parallel, C.J. Thomas and C.H. Williams , "Language and Nationalism in Wales: A Case Study", Ethnic and Racial Studies (Volume I, No. 2), pp. 335-58. In Africa the Ewe and Bakongo are among several ethnic communities whose historic homes have been divided up between ex-colonial territorial states. See, inter alia, V. Olorunsola (ed.), The Politics of Cultural Subnationalism in Africa (New York: Anchor Books, 1972).

This territorial exclusiveness as a religious ideal can be traced right back to the Zealots in ancient Judea under the Roman occupation. See S.G.F. Brandon , Jesus and the Zealots (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1967), Chapter 2.

For example in the Projet Corse of 1765. A. Cobban , Rousseau and the Modern State (London: Allen and Unwin, 1964, 2nd. ed.).

A. Kahan , "Nineteenth-Century European Experience with Policies of Economic Nationalism ", in H. G. Johnson (ed.), Economic Nationalism in Old and New States (London: Allen and Unwin, 1968).

I have in mind here the theories of A. G. Frank, dos Santos and others, on which see P.J. O'Brien , "A Critique of Latin American Theories of Dependency ", in 1. Oxaal , T. Barnett and D. Booth (eds.), Beyond the Sociology of Development (London : Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975 ).

H.G. Johnson , op. cit, Chapters 1 and 8.

On the influence of the multinationals in Africa see, for example, I.L. Markowitz , op. cit., especially Chapter 3- On the attempts by new nations to escape international low status and dependency see, for example, P. Nettl and R. Robertson , International Systems and the Modernisation of Societies (London: Faber, 1968).

A term given prominence in the work of Karl Deutsch and his school. See K. Deutsch , Nationalism and Social Comminication (New York: M.I.T. Press, 1966) and "Social Mobilisation and Political Development", American Political Science Review (Vol. 55,1961), pp. 493-514.

The practice and ideology of nation-building is analysed by D. Apter , "Political Religion in the New States", in C. Geertz (ed.), op. cit.

This is the problem pinpointed by Walker. Connor in his analysis of the Deutschian model in W. Connor, op. cit. On the French Revolution's ability to transcend these divisions, J.Y. Lartichaux , "Linguistic politics during the French Revolution", Diogenes 97 (1977), pp. 65-84. National communism too may provide, together with crisis and war, the opportunity to surmount internal cleavages, religious or ethnic. D. Wilson , "Nation-building and Revolutionary War ", in K. Deutsch and W. Foltz (eds.), Nation-building (New York: Atherton, 1963) and A.D. Smith , Nationalism in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1979), Chapter 5.

For a discussion of these "state" and "nation" cycles, cf. Tilly's concluding essay in C. Tilly, op. cit.

There is a vigorous debate among medieval historians on the extent of a national consciousness in the European Middle Ages. See, for example, L. Tipton (ed.), Nationalism in the Middle Ages (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973). The antique exemplars are usually taken to be Eduard Meyer's ancient Persians, Greeks and Jews. See H. Kohn , The Idea of Nationalism (New York: Macmillan, 1967), Chapter 2.

On this system see M. Beloff , The Age of Absolutism ( London: Hutchinson, 1954).

E.K. Francis , "The Ethnic Factor in Nation-building", Social Forces 46 (1968); B. Neuberger , "State and Nation in African Thought", Journal of African Studies (Vol. 4, 1977), pp. 198-205.

K. Deutsch , op. cit (1966), Chapter 4.

E. Weber , Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernisation of Rural France (1870-1914) (London: Chatto and Windus, 1978).

Even before the 1975 civil war the uneasiness of the fragile Muslim-Christian coalition was the subject of much comment. See, for example, K. Salibi , "The Lebanese Identity", Journal of Contemporary History (Volume 6, No. 1), pp. 76-86 and A. Lijphart , Democracy in Plural Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), especially Chapter 5.

For the r6le of religion in Israel, cf. E. Gutman , "Religion and its Rôle in National Integration in Israel", Middle East Review (Volume XII, 1979), pp. 31-36.

C.J. Edmonds , "Kurdish Nationalism", Journal of Contemporary History (Volume 6, No. 1, 1971), pp. 87-107.

On this Middle Eastern mosaic even before the Second World War cf. W. Cahnrnann , "Religion and Nationality", American Journal of Sociology 49 (1944), pp. 524-9.

I. Lewis , op. cit, Chapters 9 and 10.

Examples are given in Olorunsola, op. cit.

F. Barnard , Herder's Social and Political Thought (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965).

E. Kedourie , Nationalism (London: Hutchinson , 1980).