Domestic Structure and External Flexibility: a Systemic Restatement of a Neglected Theme

A. de Tocqueville , Democracy in America, Vol. I ( London: Longmans, 1835), pp. 236-237. See also H. Nicolson , Diplomacy, 3rd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Quincy Wright , A Study of War, 2nd ed. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1965); Hans J. Morgenthau , Politics Among Nations, 5th ed. ( New York: A. Knopf, 1967), pp. 146-149.

Royal Institute of International Affairs , Defence in the Cold War (London: 1950 ).

M. Beloff , Foreign Policy and the Democratic Process (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1955).

Cf. H.A. Kissinger , "Domestic Structure and Foreign Policy," Daedalus (95, No. 2, pp. 503-529); B. Farrell , "Foreign Policies of Open and Closed Political Societies " in B. Farrell, ed., Approaches to Comparative and International Politics (Evanston, Illinois : Northwestern University Press, 1966), pp. 167-208; D.O. Wilkinson , Comparative Foreign Relations (Belmont, Cal.: Dickinson Publishing Co. , 1969); H.H. Lentner , Foreign Policy Analysis ( Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1974), pp. 11-12; A. Scott , The Functioning of International Political Systems (London: Collier-Macmillan , 1967), pp. 104-105; M.A. Kaplan , System and Process in International Politics (New York: John Wiley & Sons , 1957), pp. 99-100; J.N. Rosenau , " Paradigm Lost: Five Actors in Search of the Interactive Effects of Domestic and Foreign Affairs" in Policy Sciences (No. 4, 1973).

Almond restated his main thesis in many publications. But it seems best to read it in its first and in its latest versions. See G. Almond , " Comparative Political Systems," The Journal of Politics (Vol. 18, No. 3, 1956), and G. Almond , " A Developmental Approach to Political Systems," in World Politics (Vol. XVII, No. 2, 1965).

Cf. Almond , ibid. ; J. La Palombara , "Macro-Theories and Micro-Applications in Comparative Politics: A Widening Schism," Comparative Politics (Vol. I, No. 1, 1968); J.D. Singer , " Theorists and Empiricists: The Two Culture Problem in International Politics,'' J. N. Roseneau et al., eds., The Analysis of International Politics (New York: The Free Press, 1972), pp. 80-95; O.R. Young , Systems of Political Science (New York: Prentice-Hall , 1968), pp. 28-37. David Easton , for reasons which are not difficult to guess, dismissed functionalism as " scientifically trivial." See D. Easton , A Framework for Political Analysis (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965), p. 105; Scott , op. cit., p. vii.

This is a reference to the excellent series of monographs published by Little, Brown & Co. of Boston and edited by Almond. Some of these outstanding contributions are already in their 3rd edition. Cf. Barghoorn, (Politics in the U.S.S.R.); Edinger, (Politics in West Germany); Ehrman, (Politics in France).

Wilkinson, op. cit.

M. Brecher , B. Steinberg , J. Stein , " A Framework for Research on Foreign Policy Behavior," The Journal of Conflict Resolution, (Vol. xiii, No. 1, March 1969), pp. 75-101.

See A.E. Dawisha , " Foreign Policy Models and the Problem of Dynamism ," in The British Journal of International Studies (Vol. 2, No. 2); J. Wilkenfeld et al., " A Framework for the Comparative Analysis of Foreign Policy Behavior," in The International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 19, No. 2); C. Hill , "Theories of Foreign Policy Making for the Developing Countries," in C. Clapham, ed., Foreign Policy Making in Developing States (London: Saxon House, 1977), pp. 1-16.

M. Brecher , The Foreign Policy System of Israel: Setting, Images, Processes ( London: Oxford University Press, 1972), p. 2.

Ibid.

Such a perspective should open up new vistas to a truly comparative LDC oriented study of foreign policy such as has been advocated by J. Migdal , F.B. Weinstein , M. East and C. Hill. See Hill. op. cit. as well as B. Korani , Social Change, Charisma and International Behavior: Toward a Theory of Foreign Policy Making in The Third World (Geneva: Institut Universitaire des Hautes Etudes Internationales, Collections de Relations Internationales, No. 4 and A.W. Sijthoff , Leiden, 1976).

Almond , " Developmental", op. cit., p. 195.

J.D. Singer , " The Global System and Its Subsystems: A Developmental View," in J. N. Rosenau , ed., Linkage Politics (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1969), pp. 23-24.

This is a synthesis of Pruitt's concept with system/cybernetic notions and the equally famous Eastonian idea of politics-as-allocation. See Easton , op. cit p. 50; D. Pruitt , " Definition of the Situation as a Determinant of International Action," in H. C. Kelman, ed., International Behavior (New York; Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1965), pp. 391-433; E. Feit , " Political Groups Under Severe Pressure: A Comparative Study Based on the Communication-Control Model," General Systems Yearbook (Vol. IX, 1964), pp. 265-281.

J.D. Singer , " The Behavioral Science Approach to International Relations: Payoffs and Prospects," SAIS Review (No. 10, 1966). M. Kaplan went even further and elevated this famous Occam's razor to the level of a virtue to be actively pursued. See M.A. Kaplan , Macropolitics (Chicago: Aldain Publishing Co., 1969), p. 7.

See P.J. McGowan and H.B. Shapiro , The Comparative Study of Foreign Policy (London: Sage, 1973). McGowan reiterates the same catalogue in "The Future of Comparative Studies: An Evangelical Plea," in J. N. Rosenau , ed., In Search of Global Patterns (New York: The Free Press, 1976), pp. 217-235. 19.

The question which precedes which, leadership development or the reverse, is a hornet's nest which can only be determined at a twilight zone which lies between axioms and their theorems. In this context leadership was designated an intervening variable following Almond's examination of the issue. See G. Almond , S. C. Flanagan , R. J. Mundt , eds., Crisis Choice and Change (Boston: Little, Brown & Co. , 1973), pp. 17-20.

C.F. Hermann , " Crisis as a Situational Variable," in Rosenau, International Politics, op. cit., pp. 409-421.

M. Brecher , ed.. Studies in Crisis Behavior. A Special Edition of The Jerusalem Journal of International Relations (Vol. 3, Nos. 2-3. Spring, 1978 ). 22.

See A. Dawisha's contribution to ibid. under the title " Syria's Intervention in Lebanon 1975-1976."

See S.P. Huntington , "The Change to Change: Modernization, Development and Politics" Comparative Politics (Vol. 3, No. 3). Apart from Huntington's work I also consulted: G. Ben-Dor , " Institutionalization and Political Development: A Conceptual and Theoretical Analysis," Comparative Studies in Society and History (Vol. 17, No. 3), pp. 309-325; 1. L. Horowitz , Three Worlds of Development: The Theory and Practice of International Stratification (London: Oxford University Press, 1972); A.F.K. Organski , The Stages of Political Development (New York: A. Knopf, 1965); L. Pye , Aspects of Political Development (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1967).

This discussion of the immensely complex problem of leadership draws heavily on the following sources: W.W. Burke , " Leadership Behavior as Function of the Leader, the Follower, and the Situation" Journal of Personality (Vol. 33, No. 1), pp. 60-81; S. Hoffman , "Heroic Leadership in France," in S. Hoffmann , Decline or Renewal? France Since the 1930s (New York: The Viking Press, 1974); C. Liske, W. Loehr, J. McCamant, eds., Comparative Public Policy: Issues Theories and Methods (Beverly Hills and London: Sage Library of Social Research , 1975); J.R. Roche , " The Bureaucrat and the Enthusiast: An Exploration of the Leadership of Social Movements" Western Political Quarterly (Vol. 7, No. 4); E. Shils , "The Concentration and Dispersion of Charisma " World Politics (Vol. 11, No. 1); R.M. Stogdill , Handbook of Leadership ( New York: The Free Press, 1974).

Roche , op. cit., p. 251.

For a vivid description of the situation in this respect in the Third World see Mohamed Hassanein Heikal , " Egyptian Foreign Policy," Foreign Affairs (Vol. 56, No. 4, July 1978).

These observations were profoundly inspired by two famous works: M.A. Kaplan , The Conduct of Inquiry (Scranton, Penn.: Chandler Publishing Co., 1964), esp. pp. 39-40; and, in a deeper sense, K. Popper , The Poverty of Historicism (London and Henley: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976). See also R. Rummel-perhaps the most militant of all behaviourists-in Rosenau, Global Patterns, op. cit., pp. 10-31; as well as M.A. Kaplan , op. cit p. 4.

See Lentner , op. cit., pp. 11-12.