Recent studies have reported positive effects of music training on older adults’ executive functions. However, it is not completely known whether these outcomes were due to improvement in music performance skills or due to other components of training, such as social interaction and music listening. Here, we investigated the effect of a 10-week melodica training program on a group of healthy older adults in Japan and the relationship between their early music performance and improvements in executive functions. Participants were divided into an experimental and a passive control group; both completed a battery of executive function measures before and after the intervention. The experimental group also completed a music performance evaluation developed for the current study. We found a significant improvement in an executive function composite index for the intervention group as compared with the control group. Moreover, individual musical performance was the only factor to predict cognitive improvement. Our results suggest that musical instrument training has a positive impact on older adults’ cognition which is not solely attributed to social interaction or music listening. Further research should consider the potential of examining individual differences in music performance skills inside the experimental group to understand the effects of instrument training programs.
AlainC.MoussardA.SingerJ.LeeY.BidelmanG. M.MorenoS. (2019). Music and visual art training modulate brain activity in older adults. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 13, Article 182. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.00182
2.
AltenmüllerE.FuruyaS.ScholzD. S.IoannouC. I. (2019). Brain research in music performance. In ThautM. H.HodgesD. A. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of music and the brain (pp. 458–486). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198804123.013.19
3.
AltenmüllerE.SchlaugG. (2012). Music, brain, and health: Exploring biological foundations of music’s health effects. In MacDonaldR.KreutzG.MitchellL. (Eds.), Music, health, and wellbeing (pp. 11–24). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586974.003.0002
4.
AmerT.KalenderB.HasherL.TrehubS. E.WongY. (2013). Do older professional musicians have cognitive advantages?PLOS ONE, 8(8), Article e71630. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071630
5.
BarryN. H. (2009). Evaluating music performance: Politics, pitfalls, and successful practices. College Music Symposium, 49/50, 246–256.
6.
BollenK. A.BauldryS. (2011). Three Cs in measurement models: Causal indicators, composite indicators, and covariates. Psychological Methods, 16(3), 265–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024448
7.
BrownR. M.RobertsonE. M.PressD. Z. (2009). Sequence skill acquisition and off-line learning in normal aging. PLOS ONE, 4(8), Article e6683. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006683
8.
BugosJ. A.PerlsteinW. M.McCraeC. S.BrophyT. S.BedenbaughP. H. (2007). Individualized piano instruction enhances executive functioning and working memory in older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 11(4), 464–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607860601086504
9.
BuhusiC. V.MeckW. H. (2005). What makes us tick? Functional and neural mechanisms of interval timing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6(10), Article 10. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1764
10.
BuurenS. V. (2012). Flexible imputation of missing data. CRC Press.
Chaddock-HeymanL.LouiP.WengT. B.WeisshappelR.McAuleyE.KramerA. F. (2021). Musical training and brain volume in older adults. Brain Sciences, 11(1), 50. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11010050
13.
ClarkeE. (2002). Understanding the psychology of performance. In RinkJ. (Ed.), Musical performance (1st ed., pp. 59–72). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511811739.005
14.
ColversonA.BarsoumS.CohenR.WilliamsonJ. (2024). Rhythmic musical activities may Strengthen connectivity between brain networks associated with aging-related deficits in timing and executive functions. Experimental Gerontology, 186, 112354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2023.112354
15.
CrawfordJ. R.VenneriA.O’CarrollR. E. (1998). Neuropsychological assessment of the elderly. In BellackA. S.HersenM. (Eds.), Comprehensive clinical psychology (pp. 133–169). Pergamon. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0080-4270(73)00069-9
16.
D’AgataF.CaroppoP.BoghiA.CoriascoM.CaglioM.BaudinoB.SaccoK.CaudaF.GedaE.BerguiM.GeminianiG.BradacG. B.OrsiL.MortaraP. (2011). Linking coordinative and executive dysfunctions to atrophy in spinocerebellar ataxia 2 patients. Brain Structure and Function, 216(3), 275–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-011-0310-4
17.
DennisN. A.CabezaR. (2011). Neuroimaging of healthy cognitive aging. In CraikF. I. M.SalthouseT. A. (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (pp. 1–54). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203837665.ch1
FairchildJ. K.FriedmanL.RosenA. C.YesavageJ. A. (2013). Which older adults maintain benefit from cognitive training? Use of signal detection methods to identify long-term treatment gains. International Psychogeriatrics, 25(4), 607–616. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610212002049
20.
FauvelB.GroussardM.EustacheF.DesgrangesB.PlatelH. (2013). Neural implementation of musical expertise and cognitive transfers: Could they be promising in the framework of normal cognitive aging?Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, Article 693. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00693
21.
FergusonH. J.BrunsdonV. E. A.BradfordE. E. F. (2021). The developmental trajectories of executive function from adolescence to old age. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1382. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-80866-1
22.
Fernández-RubioG.OlsenE. R.KlarlundM.MallonO.CarlomagnoF.VuustP.KringelbachM. L.BratticoE.BonettiL. (2023). Investigating the impact of age on auditory short-term, long-term, and working memory. Psychology of Music, 52, 187–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356231183404
23.
GibbonsL. E.CarleA. C.MackinR. S.HarveyD.MukherjeeS.InselP.CurtisS. M.MungasD.CraneP. K. (2012). A composite score for executive functioning, validated in Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) participants with baseline mild cognitive impairment. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 6(4), 517–527. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-012-9176-1
24.
GreenC. S.BavelierD. (2008). Exercising your brain: A review of human brain plasticity and training-induced learning. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 692–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014345
25.
Guerra-CarrilloB.KatovichK.BungeS. A. (2017). Does higher education hone cognitive functioning and learning efficacy? Findings from a large and diverse sample. PLOS ONE, 12(8), Article e0182276. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182276
26.
GuoX.YamashitaM.SuzukiM.OhsawaC.AsanoK.AbeN.SoshiT.SekiyamaK. (2020). Musical instrument training program improves verbal memory and neural efficiency in novice older adults. Human Brain Mapping, 42, 1359–1375. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25298
27.
Hanna-PladdyB.MacKayA. (2011). The relation between instrumental musical activity and cognitive aging. Neuropsychology, 25(3), 378–386. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021895
28.
HarryB. B.MarguliesD. S.FalkiewiczM.KellerP. E. (2023). Brain networks for temporal adaptation, anticipation, and sensory-motor integration in rhythmic human behavior. Neuropsychologia, 183, 108524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2023.108524
29.
HashimotoK.TategamiS.OkamotoT.SetaH.AboM.OhashiM. (2006). Examination by near-infrared spectroscopy for evaluation of piano performance as a frontal lobe activation task. European Neurology, 55(1), 16–21. https://doi.org/10.1159/000091138
30.
JaeggiS. M.BuschkuehlM.JonidesJ.ShahP. (2011). Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(25), 10081–10086. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1103228108
31.
JakobsenJ. C.GluudC.WetterslevJ.WinkelP. (2017). When and how should multiple imputation be used for handling missing data in randomised clinical trials—A practical guide with flowcharts. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 17(1), Article 162. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-017-0442-1
32.
JamesC. E.OechslinM. S.Van De VilleD.HauertC.-A.DesclouxC.LazeyrasF. (2014). Musical training intensity yields opposite effects on grey matter density in cognitive versus sensorimotor networks. Brain Structure & Function, 219(1), 353–366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-013-0504-z
JonassonL. S.NybergL.KramerA. F.LundquistA.RiklundK.BoraxbekkC.-J. (2017). Aerobic exercise intervention, cognitive performance, and brain structure: Results from the physical influences on brain in aging (PHIBRA) study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 8, Article 336. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2016.00336
35.
KellyM. E.DuffH.Kelly, S., McHughPowerJ. E.BrennanS.LawlorB. A.LoughreyD. G. (2017). The impact of social activities, social networks, social support and social relationships on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: A systematic review. Systematic Reviews, 6(1), 259. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-017-0632-2
36.
LaPlumeA. A.AndersonN. D.McKettonL.LevineB.TroyerA. K. (2022). When I’m 64: Age-related variability in over 40,000 online cognitive test takers. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 77(1), 104–117. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbab143
37.
LezakM. D.HowiesonD. B.BiglerE. D.TranelD. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment (5th ed., pp. xxv, 1161). Oxford University Press.
38.
LövdénM.BäckmanL.LindenbergerU.SchaeferS.SchmiedekF. (2010). A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 659–676. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020080
39.
LövdénM.BrehmerY.LiS.-C.LindenbergerU. (2012). Training-induced compensation versus magnification of individual differences in memory performance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, Article 141. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00141
40.
LumacaM.RavignaniA.BaggioG. (2018). Music evolution in the laboratory: Cultural transmission meets neurophysiology. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 12, Article 246. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00246
41.
MacRitchieJ.BreadenM.MilneA. J.McIntyreS. (2020). Cognitive, motor and social factors of music instrument training programs for older adults’ improved wellbeing. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 2868. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02868
42.
MeisterI. G.KringsT.FoltysH.BoroojerdiB.MüllerM.TöpperR.ThronA. (2004). Playing piano in the mind—An fMRI study on music imagery and performance in pianists. Cognitive Brain Research, 19(3), 219–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2003.12.005
43.
MiendlarzewskaE. A.TrostW. J. (2014). How musical training affects cognitive development: Rhythm, reward and other modulating variables. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 7, Article 279. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2013.00279
44.
MiyakeA.FriedmanN. P.EmersonM. J.WitzkiA. H.HowerterA.WagerT. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
45.
MoussardA.BermudezP.AlainC.TaysW.MorenoS. (2016). Life-long music practice and executive control in older adults: An event-related potential study. Brain Research, 1642, 146–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2016.03.028
46.
OlivitoG.LupoM.IacobacciC.ClausiS.RomanoS.MasciulloM.MolinariM.CercignaniM.BozzaliM.LeggioM. (2018). Structural cerebellar correlates of cognitive functions in spinocerebellar ataxia type 2. Journal of Neurology, 265(3), 597–606. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-018-8738-6
47.
OlszewskaA. M.GacaM.HermanA. M.JednorógK.MarchewkaA. (2021). How musical training shapes the adult brain: Predispositions and neuroplasticity. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 15, Article 630829. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2021.630829
ParkD. C.LautenschlagerG.HeddenT.DavidsonN. S.SmithA. D.SmithP. K. (2002). Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span. Psychology and Aging, 17(2), 299–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299
50.
ReitanR. M.WolfsonD. (1985). The Halstead–Reitan neuropsycholgical test battery: Therapy and clinical interpretation. Neuropsychological Press.
51.
Román-CaballeroR.ArnedoM.TriviñoM.LupiáñezJ. (2018). Musical practice as an enhancer of cognitive function in healthy aging—A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS ONE, 13(11), Article e0207957. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207957
SadakataM.SekiyamaK. (2011). Enhanced perception of various linguistic features by musicians: A cross-linguistic study. Acta Psychologica, 138(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.03.007
54.
SchlaugG. (2015). Musicians and music making as a model for the study of brain plasticity. Progress in Brain Research, 217, 37–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2014.11.020
55.
SeinfeldS.FigueroaH.Ortiz-GilJ.Sanchez-VivesM. V. (2013). Effects of music learning and piano practice on cognitive function, mood and quality of life in older adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, Article 810. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00810
56.
SlaterJ.AshleyR.TierneyA.KrausN. (2018). Got rhythm? Better inhibitory control is linked with more consistent drumming and enhanced neural tracking of the musical beat in adult percussionists and nonpercussionists. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 30(1), 14–24. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01189
57.
SlevcL. R.OkadaB. M. (2015). Processing structure in language and music: A case for shared reliance on cognitive control. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(3), 637–652. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0712-4
58.
SridharanD.LevitinD. J.ChafeC. H.BergerJ.MenonV. (2007). Neural dynamics of event segmentation in music: Converging evidence for dissociable ventral and dorsal networks. Neuron, 55(3), 521–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.003
SterneJ. A. C.WhiteI. R.CarlinJ. B.SprattM.RoystonP.KenwardM. G.WoodA. M.CarpenterJ. R. (2009). Multiple imputation for missing data in epidemiological and clinical research: Potential and pitfalls. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 338, Article b2393. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b2393
61.
StoodleyC. J.SchmahmannJ. D. (2018). Functional topography of the human cerebellum. In MantoM.HuismanT. A. G. M. (Eds.), Handbook of clinical neurology (Vol. 154, pp. 59–70). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63956-1.00004-7
62.
StrongJ. V.MiddenA. (2020). Cognitive differences between older adult instrumental musicians: Benefits of continuing to play. Psychology of Music, 48(1), 67–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735618785020
63.
SwaminathanS.SchellenbergE. G. (2018). Musical competence is predicted by music training, cognitive abilities, and personality. Scientific Reports, 8(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-27571-2
64.
SwaminathanS.SchellenbergE. G. (2019). Music training and cognitive abilities: Associations, causes, and consequences. In ThautM. H.HodgesD. A. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of music and the brain (pp. 644–670). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198804123.013.26
65.
TraversoL.ViterboriP.UsaiM. C. (2019). Effectiveness of an executive function training in Italian preschool educational services and far transfer effects to pre-academic skills. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 2053. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02053
66.
Tucker-DrobE. M.BrandmaierA. M.LindenbergerU. (2019). Coupled cognitive changes in adulthood: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 145(3), 273–301. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000179
67.
UllénF.HambrickD. Z.MosingM. A. (2016). Rethinking expertise: A multifactorial gene–environment interaction model of expert performance. Psychological Bulletin, 142(4), 427–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000033
68.
VergheseJ.LiptonR. B.KatzM. J.HallC. B.DerbyC. A.KuslanskyG.AmbroseA. F.SliwinskiM.BuschkeH. (2003). Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly. New England Journal of Medicine, 348(25), 2508–2516. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa022252
69.
VygotskyL. S. (1981). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes [Nachdr.]. Harvard University Press.
70.
WangX.SoshiT.YamashitaM.KakiharaM.TsutsumiT.IwasakiS.SekiyamaK. (2023). Effects of a 10-week musical instrument training on cognitive function in healthy older adults: Implications for desirable tests and period of training. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 15, Article 1180259. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1180259
WesolowskiB. C.WindS. A. (2019). Investigating rater accuracy in the context of secondary-level solo instrumental music performance. Musicae Scientiae, 23(2), 157–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864917713805
73.
WilloughbyM. T.BlairC. B. (2016). Measuring executive function in early childhood: A case for formative measurement. Psychological Assessment, 28(3), 319–330. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000152
74.
WollmanI.PenhuneV.SegadoM.CarpentierT.ZatorreR. J. (2018). Neural network retuning and neural predictors of learning success associated with cello training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(26), E6056–E6064. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721414115
75.
YamashitaM.OhsawaC.SuzukiM.GuoX.SadakataM.OtsukaY.AsanoK.AbeN.SekiyamaK. (2022). Neural advantages of older musicians involve the cerebellum: Implications for healthy aging through lifelong musical instrument training. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 15, Article 784026. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.784026
76.
YurgilK. A.VelasquezM. A.WinstonJ. L.ReichmanN. B.ColomboP. J. (2020). Music training, working memory, and neural oscillations: A review. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 266. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00266
77.
ZatorreR. J. (2013). Predispositions and plasticity in music and speech learning: Neural correlates and implications. Science, 342(6158), 585–589. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1238414
78.
ZhangJ. D.SusinoM.McPhersonG. E.SchubertE. (2020). The definition of a musician in music psychology: A literature review and the six-year rule. Psychology of Music, 48(3), 389–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735618804038
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
