In the scaling of emotions in general, and their application to music in particular,
the valence (good/bad) and activity or arousal dimensions are ubiquitous. Naive
intuition and critics' writings have assumed a greater profundity in
music's ability to express emotions than this would imply. Five experiments
were performed to show that music is capable of expressing a greater detail in
emotional range than can be captured by these two dimensions. The basic paradigm had
participants rank order sets of emotions with respect to how well they applied to
brief, unfamiliar instrumental selections. People did so rapidly, with significant
reliability, even when the affective compass of the emotions to be ranked was
restricted to enforce attention to subtle withindimension distinctions, or expanded
to allow attention to subtle distinctions.
Collier, G.L
. (1996)
‘Affective Synesthesia: Extracting Emotion Space from Simple
Perceptual Stimuli’
, Motivation and Emotion20(1):
1–31
.
2.
Collier, G.L
. (2002)
‘Why Does Music Express Only Some Emotions? A Test of a
Philosophical Theory’
, Empirical Studies of the Arts20(1):
21–31
.
3.
Gabrielsson, A.
(2001) ‘Emotions in Strong Experiences with
Music’, in
P.N. Juslin
and
J.A. Sloboda
(eds) Music and Emotion: Theory and Research.
New York: Oxford University Press
.
4.
Gabrielsson, A
. and
Juslin, P.N
. (2003) ‘Emotional Expression in
Music’, in
R.J. Davidson
,
K.R. Scherer
and
H. Hill Goldsmith
(eds) Handbook of Affective Sciences, pp.
503–534.
Oxford: Oxford University Press
.
5.
Gabrielsson, A
. and
Lindstrom, E.
(1995)
‘Emotional Expression in Synthesizer and Sentograph Performance’
, Psychomusicology14:
94–116
.
6.
Hanslick, Eduard
(1957) The Beautiful in Music, ed.
Gustave Cohen
.
New York: The Liberal Arts Press
.
7.
Hevner, K.
(1935a)
‘The Affective Character of the Major and Minor Modes in Music’
, American Journal of Psychology47:
103–119
.
8.
Hevner, K.
(1935b)
‘Expression in Music: A Discussion of Experimental Studies and Theories’
, Psychological Review42(13):
186–204
.
9.
Hevner, K.
(1936)
‘Experimental Studies of the Elements of Expression in Music’
, American Journal of Psychology48:
246–268
.
10.
Juslin, P.N
. (1996)
‘Emotional Expression in Music Performance: Between the
Performer's Intention and the Listener's Experience’
, Psychology of Music24:
68–91
.
11.
Juslin, P.N
. (1997a)
‘Can Results from Studies of Perceived Expression in Musical
Performances Be Generalized across Response Formats?’
, Psychomusicology16:
77–101
.
12.
Juslin, P.N
. (1997b)
‘Emotional Communication in Music Performance: A Functionalist
Perspective and Some Data’
, Music Perception14(4):
383–418
.
13.
Juslin, P.N
. (1997c)
‘Perceived Emotional Expression in Synthesized Performances of a
Short Melody: Capturing the Listener's Judgment Policy’
, Musicae Scientiae1(2):
225–256
.
14.
Juslin, P.N
. and
Madison, G.
(1999)
‘The Role of Timing Patterns in Recognition of Emotional
Expression from Musical Performance’
, Music perception17(2):
197–221
.
15.
Juslin, P.N
. and
Sloboda, J.A
. (eds) (2001) Music and Emotion: Theory and Research.
New York: Oxford University Press
.
16.
Karwoski, T.F.
,
Odbert, H.S
. and
Osgood, C.E
. (1942)
‘Studies in Synesthetic Thinking: II. The Role of Form in Visual
Responses to Music’
, Journal of General Psychology26:
199–222
.
17.
Kivy, P.
(1990) Music Alone.
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
.
18.
Milligan, G.W
. and
Cooper, M.C
. (1988)
‘A Study of Standardization of Variables in Cluster Analysis’
, Journal of Classification5:
181–204
.
19.
Moravscik, J.
(1982)
‘Understanding and the Emotions’
, Dialectica36:
11–12
.
20.
Nishisato, S.
(1994) Elements of Dual Scaling.
Hillsdale, NJ: LEA
.
21.
Nordenstreng, K
(1968)
‘A Comparison between the Semantic Differential and Similarity
Analysis in the Measurement of Musical Experience’
, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology9:
89–96
.
22.
Odbert, H.S.
,
Karwoski, T.F.
, and
Eckerson, A.B
. (1942)
‘Studies in Synesthetic Thinking: I. Musical and Verbal
Associations of Color and Mood’
, Journal of General Psychology26:
153–173
.
23.
Ortony, A.
,
Clore, G.L
. and
Collins, A.
(1988) The Cognitive Structure of Emotions.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
.
24.
Osgood, C.E.
,
Succi, G.J
. and
Tannenbaum, P.H
. (1957) The Measurement of Meaning.
Urbana: University of Illinois Press
.
25.
Plutchik, R.
(1980) Emotion: A Psychoevolutionary Synthesis.
New York: Harper & Row
.
26.
Putnam, D.
(1987)
‘Why Instrumental Music Has No Shame’
, British Journal of Aesthetics27: 57,
59-59
.
27.
Rigg, M.G
. (1937)
‘An Experiment to Determine How Accurately College Students Can
Interpret Intended Meanings of Musical Compositions’
, Journal of Experimental Psychology21:
223–229
.
28.
Roberts, J.S
. and
Wedell, D.H
. (1994)
‘Context Effects on Similarity Judgments of Multidimensional
Stimuli: Inferring the Structure of the Emotion Space’
, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology30:
1–38
.
29.
Russell, J.
(1980)
‘A Circumplex Model of Affect’
, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology39(6):
1161–1178
.
30.
Scherer, K.R
. and
Oshinsky, J.S
. (1977)
‘Cue Utilization in Emotion Attribution from Auditory Stimuli’
, Motivation and Emotion1(4):
331–346
.
31.
Schubert, E.
(1999)
‘Measuring Emotion Continuously: Validity and Reliability of the
Two-Dimensional Emotion-Space’
, Australian Journal of Psychology51:
154–165
.
32.
Schubert, E.
(2001) ‘Continuous Measurement of Self-Report
Emotional Response to Music’, in
P.N. Juslin
and
J.A. Sloboda
(eds) Music and Emotion: Theory and Research.
New York: Oxford University Press
.
33.
Shaver, P.
,
Schwartz, J.
,
Kirson, D
. and
O’Connor, C.
(1987)
‘Emotion Knowledge: Further Exploration of a Prototype Approach’
, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology52(6):
1061–1086
.
34.
Sloboda, J.A
. (1992) ‘Empirical Studies of Emotional Response
to Music’, in
M.R. Jones
and
S. Holleran
(eds) Cognitive Bases of Musical Communication, pp.
33–46.
Washington DC: American Psychological Association
.
35.
Sloboda, J.A
. (2000) ‘Musical Performance and Emotion: Issues
and Developments’, in
S.W. Yi
(ed.) Music, Mind, & Science.
Seoul: Western Music Research Institute
.
36.
Watt, R.J
and
Ash, R.L
.(1998)
‘A Psychological Investigation of Meaning in Music’
, Musicae Scientiae22(1):
33–53
.
37.
Wedin, L.
(1972)
‘A Multidimensional Study of Perceptual–Emotional
Qualities in Music’
, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology13:
241–256
.
