The purposes of this study were twofold: to examine the relationship of two types of
motivational belief to undergraduates’ self-reported musical practice
behavior, and to evaluate the adaptation of measures of academic motivation to the
musical domain. Measures of a tripartite goal orientation and implicit theory of
musical ability were completed by 344 instrumental music majors at American
universities. Factor analysis showed the adapted items reproduced the subscales of
the original measures, and that these subscales were reliable (α >
.74). Entity theories of musical ability were positively correlated with
ego-approach (r = .16, p < .01) and ego-avoid goals
(r = .23, p < .001), and negatively related to task goals
(r = -.14, p <.01). A researcher-designed practice
strategy survey found task orientation positively related to frequency of six of
seven practice factors; ego-approach and ego-avoid goals negatively related to one
strategy type.
Ames, C.
(1992)
‘Classrooms: Goals, Structures, and Student Motivation’
, Journal of Educational Psychology84:
261-271
.
2.
Asmus, E.P.
(1985)
‘Sixth Graders’ Achievement Motivation: Their Views of
Success and Failure in Music’
, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education85:
1-13
.
3.
Austin, J.R.
(1990)
‘Competition: Is Music Education the Loser?’Music Educators Journal76(6):
21-25
.
4.
Austin, J.R.
(1991)
‘Competitive and Non-Competitive Goal Structures: An Analysis of
Motivation and Achievement among Elementary Band Students’
, Psychology of Music19:
142-158
.
5.
Austin, J.R.
(1997) ‘Conceptions of Music Ability in American
Society: The Influence of Competition and other Sociocultural
Factors’, in
R. Rideout
(ed.) On the Sociology of Music Education, pp.
166-179.
Norman: University of Oklahoma School of Music
.
6.
Austin, J.R.
and
Vispoel, W.P.
(1992)
‘Motivation after Failure in School Music Performance Classes:
The Facilitative Effects of Strategy Attributions’
, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education111:
1-23
.
7.
Barry, N.H.
(1992)
‘The Effects of Practice Strategies, Individual Differences in
Cognitive Style, and Gender upon Technical Accuracy and Musicality of
Student Instrumental Performance’
, Psychology of Music20:
112-123
.
8.
Barry, N.H.
and
McArthur, V.
(1994)
‘Teaching Practice Strategies in the Music Studio: A Survey of
Applied Music Teachers’
, Psychology of Music22:
44-55
.
9.
Chiu, C.
,
Dweck, C.S.
,
Tong, J.Y.
and
Fu, J.H.
(1997)
‘Implicit Theories and Conceptions of Morality’
, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology73:
923-940
.
10.
Csikszentmihalyi, M.
and
Rathunde, K.
(1993) ‘The Measurement of Flow in Everyday
Life: Toward a Theory of Emergent Motivation’, in
J.E. Jacobs
(ed.) Developmental Perspectives on Motivation: Nebraska Symposium on
Motivation, pp. 57-97.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press
.
11.
Dweck, C.S.
(1999) Self-Theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality,
and Development.
Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press
.
12.
Elliot, A.J.
(1999)
‘Approach and Avoidance Motivation and Achievement Goals’Educational Psychologist34(3):
169-189
.
13.
Elliot, A.J.
and
Church, M.A.
(1997)
‘A Hierarchical Model of Approach and Avoidance Achievement Motivation’
, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology72:
218-232
.
14.
Elliot, A.J.
and
Sheldon, K.M.
(1997)
‘Avoidance Achievement Motivation: A Personal Goals Analysis,’Journal of Personality and Social Psychology73:
171-185
.
15.
Elliot, A.J.
,
McGregor, H.A.
and
Gable, S.
(1999)
‘Achievement Goals, Study Strategies, and Exam Performance: A
Mediational Analysis’
, Journal of Educational Psychology91:
549-563
.
16.
Ericsson, K.A.
(1997) ‘Deliberate Practice and the Acquisition
of Expert Performance: An Overview’, in
H. Jørgensen
and
A.C. Lehmann
(eds) Does Practice Make Perfect? Current Theory and Research on
Instrumental Music Practice, pp. 9-51.
Oslo: Norges musikkhøgskole
.
17.
Ericsson, K.A.
,
Krampe, R.T.
and
Tesch-Römer, C.
(1993)
‘The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance’
, Psychological Review100:
363-406
.
18.
Geiersbach, F.J. (2000) ‘Musical Thinking in Instrumental Practice:
An Investigation of Practice Strategies used by Experienced Musicians’,
doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College, Digital Dissertations:
Publication no. AAT 9976723.
19.
Gruson, L.M.
(1988) ‘Rehearsal Skill and Musical Competence:
Does Practice Make Perfect?’ in
J.A. Sloboda
(ed.) Generative Processes in Music: The Psychology of Performance,
Improvisation, and Composition, pp. 91-112.
Oxford: Clarendon Press
.
20.
Hallam, S.
(1995)
‘Professional Musicians’ Approaches to Practice:
Implications for Teaching’
, British Journal of Music Education12(1):
3-19
.
21.
Hallam, S.
(1997) ‘What Do We Know about Practising?
Towards a Model Synthesising the Research Literature’, in
H. Jørgensen
and
A.C. Lehmann
(eds) Does Practice Make Perfect? Current Theory and Research on
Instrumental Music Practice, pp. 179-231.
Oslo: Norges musikkhøgskole
.
22.
Hallam, S.
(2001)
‘The Development of Metacognition in Musicians: Implications for Education’
, British Journal of Music Education,
18(1):
27-39
.
23.
Harackiewicz, J.M.
,
Barron, K.E.
and
Elliot, A.J.
(1998)
‘Rethinking Achievement Goals: When Are They Adaptive for College
Students and Why?’
, Educational Psychologist33(1):
1-21
.
24.
Jourden, F.J.
,
Bandura, A.
and
Banfield, J.T.
(1991)
‘The Impact of Conceptions of Ability on Self-Regulatory Factors
and Motor Skill Acquisition’
, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology8:
213-226
.
25.
Kaplan, A.
and
Maehr, M.L.
(2002) ‘Achievement Motivation: The Emergence,
Contributions, and Prospects of a Goal Orientation Perspective’,
unpublished manuscript.
26.
Knee, C.R.
(1998)
‘Implicit Theories of Relationships: Assessment and Prediction of
Romantic Relationship Initiation, Coping, and Longevity’
, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology74:
360-370
.
27.
Lehmann, A.C.
(1997) ‘The Acquisition of Expertise in Music:
Efficiency of Deliberate Practice as a Moderating Variable in Accounting for
Sub-Expert Performance’, in
I. Deliège
and
J. Sloboda
(eds) Perception and Cognition of Music, pp.
161-187.
Hove: Psychology Press
.
28.
Levy, S.R.
,
Stroessner, S.J.
and
Dweck, C.S.
(1998)
‘Stereotype Formation and Endorsement: The Role of Implicit Theories’
, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology74:
1421-1436
.
29.
Maehr, M.L.
and
Midgley, C.
(1996) Transforming School Cultures.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press
.
30.
McCormick, J.
and
McPherson, G.E.
(2003)
‘The Role of Self-Efficacy in a Musical Performance Examination:
An Exploratory Structural Equation Analysis’
, Psychology of Music31:
37-51
.
31.
McPherson, G.E.
and
McCormick, J.
(1999)
‘Motivational and Self-Regulated Learning Components of Musical Practice’
, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education141:
98-102
.
32.
McPherson, G.E.
and
Zimmerman, B.J.
(2002) ‘Self-Regulation of Musical Learning: A
Social Cognitive Perspective’, in
R. Colwell
and
C. Richardson
(eds) The New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning,
pp. 327-347.
New York: Oxford University Press
.
33.
Middleton, M.J.
and
Midgley, C.
(1997)
‘Avoiding the Demonstration of Lack of Ability: An Underexplored
Aspect of Goal Theory’
, Journal of Educational Psychology89:
710-718
.
34.
Midgley, C.
,
Kaplan, A.
and
Middleton, M.
(2001)
‘Performance-Approach Goals: Good for What, for Whom, under What
Circumstances, and at What Cost?’
, Journal of Educational Psychology93:
77-86
.
35.
Midgley, C.
,
Kaplan, A.
,
Middleton, M.
,
Maehr, M.L.
,
Urdan, T.
,
Anderman, L.H.
,
Anderman, E.
and
Roeser, R.
(1998)
‘The Development and Validation of Scales Assessing
Students’ Achievement Goal Orientations’
, Contemporary Educational Psychology23:
113-131
.
36.
Midgley, C.
,
Maehr, M.
,
Hicks, L.
,
Roeser, R.
,
Urdan, T.
,
Anderman, E.
,
Kaplan, A.
,
Arunkumar, R.
and
Middleton, M.
(1997) Patterns of Adaptive Learning Survey: PALS.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
.
37.
Miklaszewski, K.
(1989)
‘A Case Study of a Pianist Preparing a Musical Performance’
, Psychology of Music17:
95-109
.
38.
Miller, R.M.
(1994)
‘A Dysfunctional Culture: Competition in Music’
, Music Educators Journal81(3):
29-33
.
39.
Nielsen, S.G.
(1997) ‘Self-Regulation of Learning Strategies
during Practice: A Case Study of a Church Organ Student Preparing a Musical Work
for Performance’, in
H. Jørgensen
and
A.C. Lehmann
(eds) Does Practice Make Perfect? Current Theory and Research on
Instrumental Music Practice, pp. 109-122.
Oslo: Norges musikkhøgskole
.
40.
Nielsen, S.G.
(1999)
‘Learning Strategies in Instrumental Music Practice’
, British Journal of Music Education16(3):
275-291
.
41.
Pintrich, P.R.
(2000) ‘The Role of Goal Orientation in
Self-Regulated Learning’, in
M. Boekaerts
,
P.R. Pintrich
and
M. Zeidner
(eds) Handbook of Self-Regulation, pp.
451-502.
San Diego, CA: Academic Press
.
42.
Pintrich, P.R.
and
Garcia, T.
(1991) ‘Student Goal Orientation and
Self-Regulation in the College Classroom’, in
M.L. Maehr
and
P.R. Pintrich
(eds) Advances in Motivation and Achievement: Goals and Self-Regulatory
Processes, Vol. 7, pp. 371-402.
Greenwich, CT: JAI Press
.
43.
Pintrich, P.R.
and
Schunk, D.H.
(1996) Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and
Applications.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall
.
44.
Puopolo, V.
(1971)
‘The Development and Experimental Application of
Self-Instructional Practice Materials for Beginning Instrumentalists’
, Journal of Research in Music Education19(3):
342-349
.
45.
Sloboda, J.A.
(1996) ‘The Acquisition of Musical Performance
Expertise: Deconstructing the Talent Account of Individual Differences in
Musical Expressivity’, in
K.A. Ericsson
(ed.) The Acquisition of Expert Performance in the Arts and Sciences,
Sports, and Games, pp. 107-126.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
.
46.
Thomas, N.G.
(1992) ‘Motivation’, in
R. Colwell
(ed.) Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning, pp.
425-436.
New York: Schirmer
.
47.
Urbaniak, G.
and
Plous, S.
(2000) ‘Research Randomizer: Instant Random
Sampling and Random Assignment,’ accessed April 2000. Available: http://www.randomizer.org
48.
Vermetten, Y.J.
,
Lodewijks, H.G.
and
Vermunt, J.D.
(2001)
‘The Role of Personality Traits and Goal Orientations in Strategy Use’
, Contemporary Educational Psychology26:
149-170
.
49.
Weiner, B.
(1986) An Attributional Theory of Motivation and
Emotion.
New York: Springer-Verlag
.
50.
Zimmerman, B.J.
(1998)
‘Academic Studying and the Development of Personal Skill: A
Self-Regulatory Perspective’
, Educational Psychologist33(2/3):
73-86
.
