In recent years there has been a rapid increase in nanotechnology applications to medicine in order to prevent and treat diseases in the human body. The established and future applications have the potential to dramatically change medical science. The present paper will give a few examples that could transform common medical procedures.
MorrisV.J., KirbyA.R., GunningA.P.: Atomic force microscopy for biologists.Imperial College Press, London, 1999.
2.
BinningG., QuateC.F., GerberC.H.: Atomic force microscope.Phys Rev Lett, 56: 930–933, 1986.
3.
HansmaH.G., KimK.J., LaneyD.E., GarciaR.A., ArgamanM., AllenM.J., ParsonsS.M.: Properties of biomolecules measured from atomic force microscope images: a review.J Struct Biol, 119: 99–108, 1997.
4.
HendersonE.: Atomic force microscopy of living cells.Prog Surface Sci, 46: 39–60, 1994.
5.
RivettiC., GutholdM., BustamanteC.: Scanning force microscopy of DNA deposited onto mica: equilibration versus kinetic trapping studied by statistical polymer chain analysis.J Mol Biol, 264: 919–932, 1996.
6.
ZuccheriG., ScipioniA., CavaliereV., GargiuloG., DeSantisP., SamorìB.: Mapping the intrinsic curvature and flexibility along the DNA chain.Proc Natl Acad Sci, 98: 3074–3079, 2001.
7.
SpiszT.S., FangY., ReevesR.H., SeymourC.K., BankmanI.N., HohJ.H.: Automated sizing of DNA fragments in atomic force microscope images.Med Biol Eng Comput, 36: 667–672, 1998.
8.
RivettiC., CodeluppiS.: Accurate length determination of DNA molecules visualized by atomic force microscopy: evidence for a partial B- to A-form transition on mica.Ultra-microscopy, 87: 55–66, 2001.
9.
RivettiC., WalkerC., BustamanteC.: Polymer chain statistics and conformational analysis of DNA molecules with bends and sections of different flexibility.J Mol Biol, 280: 41–59, 1998.
10.
WigginsP.A., van der HeijdenT., Moreno-HerreroF., SpakowitzA., PhillipsR., WidomJ., DekkerC., NelsonP.C.: High flexibility of DNA on short length scales probed by atomic force microscopy.Nature Nanotech, 1: 137–141, 2006.
11.
SampaoleseB., BerciaA., ScipioniA., ZuccheriG., SavinoM., SamorìB., De SantisP.: Recognition of the DNA sequence by an inorganic crystal surface.Proc Natl Acad Sci, 99: 13566–13570, 2002.
12.
FicarraE., MasottiD., MaciiE., BeniniL., ZuccheriG., SamorìB.: Automatic intrinsic DNA curvature computation from AFM images.IEEE Trans Biomed Engineering, 52: 2074–2086, 2005.
13.
AnselmiC., DeSantisP., ScipioniA.: Nanoscale mechanical and dynamical properties of DNA single molecules.Biophys Chem, 113: 209–221, 2005.
14.
XiaoM., GordonM.P., PhongA., HaC., ChanT.F., CaiD., SelvinP.R., KwokP.Y.: Determination of haplotypes from single DNA molecules: a method for single molecule barcoding.Hum Mut, 28: 913–921, 2007.
The International HAPMAP Consortium:The International HAPMAP Project.Nature, 426: 789–796, 2003.
17.
WoolleyA.T., GuillemetteC., Li CheungC., HousmanD.E., LieberC.M.: Direct haplotyping of kilobase-size DNA using carbon nanotube probes.Nat Biotechnol, 18: 760–763, 2000.
IijimaS.: Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon.Nature, 354: 56, 1991.
20.
SmartS.K., CassadyA.I., LuG.Q., MartinD.J.: The biocompatibility of carbon nanotubes.Carbon, 44: 1034–1047, 2006.
21.
JengE.S., MollA.E., RoyA.C., GastalaJ.B., StranoM.S.: Detection of DNA hybridization using the near-infrared band-gap fluorescence of single-walled carbon nanotubes.Nano Lett, 6: 371–375, 2006.
22.
WuW., WieckowskiS., PastorinG., BenincasaM., KlumppC., BriandJ.P., GennaroR., PratoM., BiancoA.: Targeted delivery of amphotericin B to cells by using functionalized carbon nanotubes.Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 44: 6358–6362, 2005.
23.
KamW.S., LiuZ., DaiH.: Carbon nanotubes as intracellular transporters for proteins and DNA: an investigation of the uptake mechanism and pathway.Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 45: 577–581, 2006.
24.
PantarottoD., BriandJ.P., PratoM., BiancoA.: Translocation of bioactive peptides across cell membranes by carbon nanotubes.Chem Comm, 1: 16–17, 2004.
25.
O'ConnellM.J., BachiloS.M., HuffmanC.B., MooreV.C., StranoM.S., HarozE.H., RialonK.L., BoulP.J., NoonW.H., KittrellC., MaJ., HaugeR.H., WeismanR.B., SmalleyR.E.: Band gap fluorescence from individual single-walled carbon nanotubes.Science, 297: 593–596, 2002.
KamW.S., O'ConnellM., WisdomJ.A., DaiH.: Carbon nanotubes as multifunctional biological transporters and near-infrared agents for selective cancer cell destruction.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 102: 11600–11605, 2005.
28.
SinghR., PantarottoD., LacerdaL., PastorinG., KlumppC., PratoM., BiancoA., KostarelosK.: Tissue biodistribution and blood clearance rates of intravenously administered carbon nanotube radiotracers.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 103: 3357–3362, 2006.
29.
SayesC.M., LiangF., HudsonJ.L., MendezJ., GuoW., BeachJ.M., MooreV.C., DoyleC.D., WestJ.L., BillupsW.E., AusmanK.D., ColvinV.L.: Functionalization density dependence of single-walled carbon nanotubes cytotoxicity in vitro.Toxicol Lett, 161: 135–142, 2006.
30.
HiraiK., OkadaT., KanekoT., HatakeyamaR., YoshikiH.: Investigation on the generation of atmospheric-pressure glow discharge plasmas in contact with solution. XXVIIth ICPIG, Eindhoven, the Netherlands, 18–22 July, 2005.
31.
KasianowiczJ.J., BrandinE., BrantonD., DeamerD.W.: Characterization of individual polynucleotide molecules using a membrane channel.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 93: 13770–13773, 1996.
32.
CoulterW.H.: High speed automatic blood cell counter and cell size analyzer. Proceedings of the National Electronics Conference, pp 1034–1042, 1957.
33.
AkesonM., BrantonD., KasianowiczJ.J., BrandinE., DeamerD.W.: Microsecond time-scale discrimination among polycytidylic acid, polyadenylic acid, and polyuridylic acid as homopolymers or as segments within single RNA molecules.Biophys J, 77: 3227–3233, 1999.
34.
HoworkaS., CheleyS., BayleyH.: Sequence-specific detection of individual DNA strands using engineered nanopores.Nature Biotechnology, 19: 636–639, 2001.
35.
Winters-HiltS., LandryM., AkesonM., TanaseM., AminI., CoombsA., MoralesE., MilletJ., BaribaultC., SendamangalamS.: Cheminformatics methods for novel nanopore analysis of HIV DNA termini.BMC Bioinformatics,7(Suppl 2): S22, 2006.
LehnertT., GijsM.A.M., NetzerR., BischoffU.: Realization of hollow SiO2 micronozzles for electrical measurements on living cells.Appl Phys Lett, 81: 5063–5065, 2002.
YounanX., WhitesidesG.M.: Soft lithography.Annu Rev Mater Sci, 28: 153–184, 1998.
46.
DuffyD.C., McDonaldJ.C., SchuellerO.J.A., WhitesidesG.M.: Rapid prototyping of microfluidic systems in poly(dimethylsiloxane).Anal Chem, 70: 4974–4984, 1998.
47.
LiX., KlemicK.G., ReedM.A., SigworthF.J.: Microfluidic system for planar patch clamp electrode arrays.Nanoletters, 6: 815–819, 2006.
48.
AbgrallP., GuéA.M.: Lab-on-chip technologies: making a microfluidic network and coupling it into a complete microsystem-a review.J Micromech Microeng,17: R15–R49, 2007.
HanJ., FuJ., SchochR.B.: Molecular sieving using nanofilters: Past, present and future.Lab Chip, 8: 23–33, 2008.
57.
KajiN., TezukaY., TakamuraY., UedaM., NishimotoT., NakanishiH., HoriikeY., BabaY.: Separation of long DNA molecules by quartz nanopillar chips under a direct current electric field.Anal Chem, 76: 15–22, 2004.
58.
DoyleP., BibetteJ., BancaudA., ViovyJ.L.: Self-assembled magnetic matrices for DNA separation chips.Science, 295: 2237, 2002.
59.
FuJ., SchochR., StevensA., TannenbaumS., HanJ.: A patterned anisotropic nanofluidic sieving structure for continuous-flow separation of DNA and proteins.Nature Nanotech, 2: 121–128, 2007.