In January 1993 and December 1994, two areas of Scotland experienced extensive flooding and large-scale evacuation of a spontaneous and unstructured nature. Both the flooding and the evacuation left their traumatic mark on the householders. The research reported here was qualitative, with the objective of investigating the evacuation process inductively—how it operated on the ground, what were the problems, and how the process could be enhanced to maximize effectiveness for those who have to experience the consequences. This long-term or extended process of evacuation is described and discussed in detail in this paper, where it is emphasised that evacuation is not complete until everyone has returned home. The elderly, children, and women are also identified by the research as groups which suffered particularly as a result of the poorly executed evacuations and which require special attention. Policy and practical recommendations are drawn from the research, which may be equally applicable to future floods in the U.K., Europe, and elsewhere.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BelterR., and ShannonM.. 1993. “Impact of Natural Disasters on Children and Families.” Pp. 132–149 in Children and Disasters, edited by SaylorC.. New York: Plenum Press.
2.
BennetG.1968. “Controlled Survey of Effects on Health of Local Community Disaster.” British Medical Journal3: 454–458.
3.
BlaikieP., CannonT., DavisI., WisnerB.. 1994. At Risk: Natural Hazards, People's Vulnerability and Disasters.London: Routledge.
4.
Clwyd County Council. 1993. The Clwyd Floods of February 1990.Wales: Clwyd County Council.
5.
CompasB. E., and EppingJ. E.. 1993. “Stress and Coping in Children and Families: Implications for Children Coping with Disaster.” Pp. 19–33 in Children and Disasters, edited by SaylorC.. New York: Plenum Press.
6.
DanzigE. R., ThayerP. W., GalanterL. R.. 1958. The Effects of a Threatening Rumour on a Disaster-Stricken Community.Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.
7.
DrabekT. E.1969. “Social Processes in Disaster: Family Evacuation.” Social Problems16: 336–349.
8.
DrabekT. E.1986. Human System Responses to Disaster: An inventory of Sociological Findings.New York: Springer-Verlag.
9.
DrabekT. E., and HoetmerG. (eds.). 1991. Emergency Management: Principles and Practice for Local Government.Washington, D.C.: International City Management Association.
10.
DyerJ. V.1987. Disasters: The Social Aftermath.London: Kegan Paul.
11.
FordhamM., and KetteridgeA-M.. 1995. “Flood Disasters—Dividing the Community.” Lancaster, U.K.: Proceedings for the International Emergency Planning Conference.
12.
FordhamM., and KetteridgeA-M.. 1996. “Men Must Work and Women Must Weep: Examining Gender Stereotypes in Disasters.” Denver, CO: Paper presented at the 21st Annual Hazards Research and Applications Workshop.
13.
FordhamM., GreenC., HerringA., KetteridgeA-M., ParkerD., Penning-RowsellE., ChattertonJ., HandmerJ., TorterototJ.P.. 1994. EUROflood Technical Annex for the Flood Forecasting and Warning Module.Enfield, U.K.: Flood Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex University.
14.
GilvearD. J., and WinterbottomS. J.. 1992. “Channel Change and Flood Events Since 1783 on the Regulated River Tay, Scotland: Implications for Flood Hazard Management.” Regulated Rivers: Research and Management7: 247–260.
15.
GreenC., and KetteridgeA-M. (eds.). 1994. EUROflood Technical Annex for the Full Flood Impacts Module.Enfield, U.K.: Flood Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex University.
16.
GreenC., and KetteridgeA-M., ParkerD.1994. “Evacuation: Enhancing Response.” Pp. 1–30 in York University Problems Associated with Large Scale Evacuations.York, U.K.: Easingwold Papers.
17.
GreenC., and KetteridgeA-M., Penning-RowsellE., and ParkerD.. 1984. “Estimating the Risk From Flooding and Evaluating Worry.” London: Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the Society for Risk Assessment.
18.
KatesR.1962. Hazard and Choic Perception in Flood Plain Management.Chicago: Department of Geography, University of Chicago.
19.
KellyA., GibsonR., and Horlick-JonesT.. 1992. Local Authorities, the Media and Disasters—Developing a Peacetime Emergency Media Strategy.London: Epicentre Reports.
20.
KetteridgeA-M., and FordhamM.. 1996. “Policy Alternatives: Evacuation.” Pp. 87–99 in Improving Flood Hazard Management Across Europe. Final Report to the European Union, EUROflood Project. Enfield, U.K.: Flood Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex University.
21.
KetteridgeA-M., and FordhamM., and ClarkeL.. 1996. EUROflood Technical Annex for the Evacuation Module.Enfield, U.K.: Flood Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex University.
22.
LiftonR. J., and OlsonE.. 1976. “The Human Meaning of Total Disaster.” Psychiatry39: 1–18.
23.
LindellM., and PerryR. W.. 1992. Behavioral Foundations of Community Emergency Planning.Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere (Blackwell) Publishers.
24.
LowS., and AltmanI.. 1992. “Place Attachment: A Conceptual Inquiry.” In Human Behavior and Environment, edited by LowS., AltmanI.. New York: Plenum Press.
25.
Ministry of Agriculture Food and Fisheries.1994. Evaluation of the Intangible Benefits of Flood Alleviation Schemes—Preliminary Study.London: TechEcon Economic and Transport Consultants.
26.
MorrowB, and EnarsonE.. 1996. “Hurricane Andrew Through Women's Eyes: Issues and Recommendations.” International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters14: 5–22.
27.
NealD., PerryJ., HawkinsR.. 1982. “Getting Ready for Blizzards-Preparation Levels in the Winter of 1977–1979.” Sociological Focus15: 67–76.
28.
NealJ., and ParkerD.. 1989. Flood Warnings in the Severn-Trent Water Authority Area: An Investigation of Standards of Service, Effectiveness and Customer Satisfaction.Enfield, U.K.: Geography and Planning Paper No. 23, Middlesex Polytechnic.
29.
NorrisD. R.1990. Clwyd Coastal Flooding February 1990: Involvement of the Emergency Planning.Cardiff, Wales: Department Report to the Local Authority.
30.
OveArup. 1994. River Tay Damage Assessment.London: Ove Arup.
31.
Penning-RowsellE., FordhamM., CorreiaF., GreenC., HubertG., KetteridgeA-M., KlausJ., ParkerD., PeerbolteB., PflugnerW., ReitanoB., RochaJ., Sanchez-ArcillaA., SaraivaM., SchmidkeR., TorterototJ-P., Van der VeenA., WiestraE., WindH.. 1995. “Flood Hazard Assessment, Modelling and Management: Results from the EUROflood Project.” London: Commission of the European Communities.
32.
PerryR. W.1985. Comprehensive Emergency Management: Evacuating Threatened Populations.Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, Inc.
33.
PoulshockS. W., and CohenE. S.. 1975. “The Elderly in the Aftermath of a Disaster.” The Gerontologist15: 357–361.
34.
QuarantelliE. L.1980. Evacuation Behavior and Problems: Findings and Implications from the Research Literature.Newark, DE: University of Delaware.
35.
Rosenthal!U.1988. “Studies in Holland Flood Disaster 1953: An Essay on the Proto-Sociology of Disaster.” International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disaster6: 33–67.
36.
OfficeScottish. 1995. Deprived Areas in Scotland.Glasglow: The Scottish Office Central Research Unit.
37.
SegalL.1987. Is the Future Female?London: Virago Press.
38.
SmithD. I., HandmerJ. W., MartinW. C.. 1980. The Effects of Floods on Health: Hospital Admissions for Lismore.Canberra: Report for Richmond Inter-departmental Committee, Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, Australian National University.
39.
SmithK.1992. Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster.London: Routledge.
40.
SorensenJ. S., VogtB. M., MiletiD. S.. 1987. Evacuation: An Assessment of Planning and Research.Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratories.
41.
Strathclyde Water Services.1995. Report into Flooding Throughout Strathclyde Region During 9–12 December 1994.London: Strathclyde Water Services.
42.
TapsellS.1992. Public Perception of Flooding and Flood Defences in York.Enfield, U.K.: Flood Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex University.
43.
Welsh Consumer Council.1992. In Deep Water—A Study of Consumer Problems in Towyn and Kinmel Bay after the 1990 Floods.Cardiff, Wales: Welsh Consumer Council.
