This paper reviews the current state-of-the-art in tactile sens ing technology. We examine in detail the different methods of transduction employed by tactile sensors and describe various significant designs that incorporate these methods. We then describe the different techniques used to process and analyze tactile data. Finally, we conclude with an assessment of the current state of development.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abramowitz, J.D., Goodnow, J.W., Paul, B., and Whitney, A.1984. Pennsylvania articulated hand—An end effector to determine shape by touch. MS-CIS-84-56 GRASPLAB 28, Moore School, University of Pennsylvania, Dept. of Computer and Information Science, Philadelphia, Pa.
2.
Allen, P.1984. Surface descriptions from vision and touch. Proc. Int. Conf. Robotics. Washington, D.C. : IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 394-397.
3.
Allen, P.1985. Object recognition using vision and touch. MS-CIS-85-60, Moore School, University of Pennsylvania, Dept. of Computer and Information Science, Philadelphia, Pa.
4.
Bajcsy, R.1985. Shape from touch. In Advances in Automation and Robotics, ed. G. N. Saridis.London: JAI Press.
5.
Bajcsy, R., and Goldberg, K.Y.1984(May). Active touch and robot perception. MS-CIS-84-42 GRASPLAB 14, Moore School, University of Pennsylvania, Dept. of Computer and Information Science, Philadelphia, Pa.
6.
Bajcsy, R., McCarthy, M.J., and Trinkle, J.C.1984. Feeling by grasping. Proc. Int. Conf. Robotics. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 461-465.
Begej, S.1984 (November). An optical tactile-array sensor. COINS 84-26 , University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Dept. of Computer and Information Science .
Brady, M., Hollerbach, J.M., Johnson, T.L., Lozano-Pérez, T., and Mason, M.1982. Robot Motion: Planning and Control. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
11.
Briot, M.1979. The utilisation of an artificial skin sensor for the identification of solid objects. Proc. 9th Int. Symposium on Industrial Robotics: 529-547.
12.
Brown, D.J.1980 (December). Computer architecture for object recognition and sensing. MS-CIS-80-22, Moore School, University of Pennsylvania, Dept. Computer and Information Science , Philadelphia, Pa.
13.
van Brussel, H., and Belien, H.1986. A high resolution tactile sensor for part recognition . Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Robot Vision and Sensory Controls: Kempston, UK: IFS(Pubs) , pp. 49-60.
14.
Chalupa, V., Marik, V., and Volf, J.1982. Tactile matrix for shape recognition. Proc. 9th IMEKO Congress Int. Measurement Confederation: pp. 339-348.
15.
Checinski, S.S., and Agrawal, A.K.1986. Magnetoelastic tactile sensor. In Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non-Vision, ed. A. Pugh, pp. 229-236. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs) ; New York: Springer-Verlag .
16.
Christ, J.P., and Sanderson, A.1982 (September). A prototype tactile sensor array. CMU-RI-TR-82-14, Carnegie Mellon University Robotics Institute , Pittsburgh, Pa.
17.
Collins, A.S., and Hoover, W.A.1987. A prototype for an image-based tactile sensor. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1760-1765.
18.
Crosnier, J.J.1986. Grasping systems with tactile sense using optical fibres . In Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non-Vision, ed. A. Pugh, pp. 209-217. Kempston, Bedford , UK: IFS(Pubs); New York : Springer-Verlag.
19.
Cutkosky, M.R., Jourdain, J.M., and Wright, P.K.1987. Skin materials for robotic fingers. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1649-1654.
20.
Dario, P., Bergamasco, M., Femi, D., Fiorillo, A., and Vaccarelli, A.1987. Tactile perception in unstructured environments: A case study for rehabilitative robotics application. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 2047-2054.
21.
Dario, P., and De Rossi, D.1985 (Aug.). Tactile sensors and the gripping challenge. IEEE Spectrum: 46-52.
22.
Dario, P., De Rossi, D., Domenici, C., and Francesconi, R.1984. Ferroelectric polymer tactile sensors with anthropomorphic features. Proc. Int. Conf. Robotics. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 332-340.
23.
Dillman, R.1982. A sensor controlled gripper with tactile and non-tactile sensor environment. Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Robot Vision and Sensory Controls. Kempston, UK: IFS(Pubs) , pp. 159-170.
24.
Ellis, R.E.1984 (Nov.). Extraction of tactile features by passive and active sensing. COINS84-27, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass.
25.
Ellis, R.E.1987. Acquiring tactile data for the recognition of planar objects . Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation . Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1799-1805.
26.
Fearing, R.S.1987. Some experiments with tactile sensing during grasping . Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation . Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1637-1643.
27.
Fearing, R.S., and Hollerbach, J.M.1985. Basic solid mechanics for tactile sensing. Int. J. Robotics Res.4(3):40-54.
28.
Freeman, H.1974. Computer processing of line drawing images. Computing Surveys6(1):57-98.
29.
Ghani, N.1988. ESPRIT 278 —A collaborative sensors project. Proc. 4th CIM Europe Conf: 59-70.
30.
Gindy, S.S.1983. A new concept for an intelligent touch sensor. Proc. Robotic Intelligence and Productivity Conf: 67-73.
31.
Grahn, A.R., and Astle, L.1986. Robotic ultrasonic force sensor arrays. In Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non-Vision, ed. A. Pugh, pp. 297-315. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs) ; New York: Springer-Verlag .
32.
Grant, E., Mowforth, P.H., and Jackson, J.1986. Integrated sensing for robots. Proc. 10th Workshop on Microcomputer Applications.
33.
Grimson, W.E.L., and Lozano-Pérez, T.1984. Model based recognition and localization from sparse range or tactile data. Int. J. Robotics. Res.3(3):3-35.
34.
Gurfinkel, V.S., Shneyder, A., Kanayev, Ye M., and Gurfinkel, Ye V.1974. Tactile sensitizing of manipulators. Engineering Cybernetics12(6):47-56.
35.
Hackwood, S., Beni, G., and Nelson, T.J.1986. Torque sensitive tactile array for robotics. In Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non- Vision, ed. A. Pugh, pp. 123 -131. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs) ; New York: Springer-Verlag .
36.
Harmon, L.D.1982. Automated tactile sensing. Int. J. Robotics Res.1(2):3-31.
37.
Harmon, L.D.1984. Tactile sensing for robots. Robotics and Artificial Intelligence, eds. M. Brady, L. A. Gerhardt, H. F. Davidson, pp. 109-158. New York: Springer-Verlag/NATO.
38.
Hillis, W.D.1982. A high resolution imaging touch sensor. Int. J. Robotics Res.1(2):33-44.
39.
Hu, M.1962 (Feb.). Visual pattern recognition by moment invariants . IRE Trans. Information Theory: 179-187.
40.
URR 1988. Int. J. Robotics Res. 7(3).
41.
Jacobsen, S., McCammon, I., and Biggers, K.1987. Tactile sensing system design issues. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation, Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 2087-2096.
42.
Jayawant, B.V., Onori, M.A., and McK.Watson, J.D.1986. Robot tactile sensing: A new array sensor. In Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non-Vision , ed. A. Pugh, pp. 199-205. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs); New York: Springer-Verlag.
43.
Jeswiet, J., and Nshama, W.1986. A robot force/temperature sensing gripper for heavy industry . Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Robot Vision and Sensory Controls. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs) , pp. 151-156.
44.
Kah-Bin, L., and Yoon-Song, C.1988. Low cost tactile gripper using silicone rubber sensor array. Robotica6( 1 ):23 - 30.
45.
King, A.A., and White, R.M.1985. Tactile sensing array based on forming and detecting an optical image. Sensors and Actuators8:49-63.
46.
Kinoshita, G.1973. Pattern recognition of the grasped object by the artificial hand. Proc. 3rd Int. Joint Conf on AI ( Menlo Park, Calif.) 665-669.
47.
Kinoshita, G.1977. Classification of grasped object's shape by an artificial hand with multi-element tactile sensors. In Information-Control Problems in Manufacturing Technology, pp. 111-118. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
48.
Kinoshita, G., Hajika, T., and Hattori,K.1983. Multifunctional tactile sensors with multi-elements for fingers. Proc. Int. Conf. onAdvanced Robotics: 195-202.
49.
Klatzky, R.L., Bajcsy, R., and Lederman, S.J.1987. Object exploration in one and two fingered robots. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics and Automation. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1806-1809.
50.
Kowalski, C.1985(April). Silicon succeeds in touch sensing. Robotics Today: 29-36.
51.
Larcombe, M.H.E.1981. Why carbon fibres can give robots a strong sense of grip . Sensor Review1(1):58-59.
52.
Lauber, A., Sandell, B., Holmbom, P., and Pederson, O.1988. Tactile sensors for industrial robots. Sensor Review8(2):84-88.
53.
Luo, R.C.1984. Design and implementation of hand-based tactile sensors for industrial robots. Proc. Int. Conf. on Robotics and Factories of the Future: 423-432.
54.
Luo, R.C., and Loh, H-H.1987. Tactile array sensor for object identification using complex moments. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation . Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1935-1940.
55.
Luo, R.C., Wang, F., and Liu, Y.1986. An imaging tactile sensor with magnetostrictive transduction. Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non-Vision, ed. A. Pugh, pp. 199-205. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs) ; New York: Springer-Verlag .
56.
McClelland, S.1987. Giving tactile sensors a good image. Sensor Review7(4):203-204.
57.
Minsky, M.1975. A framework for representing knowledge. In The Psychology of Computer Vision, ed. P. H. Winston, pp. 211-277. New York: McGraw-Hill .
58.
Mitchell, E.E., and Vranish, J.1985. Magnetoelastic force feedback sensors for robots and machine tools—An update. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Robot Vision and Sensory Controls. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs), pp. 187-194.
59.
Mott, D.H., Lee, M.H., and Nicholls, H.R.1986. An experimental very high resolution tactile sensor array . Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non- Vision, ed. A. Pugh, pp. 179-188. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs); New York: Springer-Verlag.
60.
Muthurkishnan, C., Smith, D., Myers, D., Rebman, J., and Koivo, A.1987. Edge detection in tactile images. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics and Automation. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1500-1505.
61.
Nicholls, H.R.1987. Tactile sensing for industrial robots, PhD. thesis, UCW-RRG-TR-134-88, Dept. of Computer Science, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK.
62.
Nicholls, H.R., and Lee, M.H.1985. Analysing data produced by tactile sensors. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. Robot Vision and Sensory Controls. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs), pp. 201-210.
63.
Overton, K.J.1984. The acquisition, processing and use of tactile sensor data in robot control. COINS 84-08, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Dept. of Computer and Information Science.
64.
Ozaki, H., Waku, S., Mohri, A., and Takata, M.1982. Pat tern recognition of a grasped object by unit-vector distribution. IEEE Trans. Systems, Man Cybernet. SMC-12(3):315-324.
65.
Patterson, R.W., and Nevill, G.E., Jr.1986. The induced vibration touch sensor—A new dynamic touch sensing concept. Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non-Vision , ed. A. Pugh, pp. 219-228. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs); New York: Springer-Verlag.
Peterson, R.R.1984. A compliant tactile sensor utilising conductive elastomers . Proc. First World Conf. on Robotics Research . Detroit: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
68.
Presern, S., Dacar,F. and Spegel, M.1981. Design of three active degrees of freedom tactile sensor for industrial arc welding robots. Proc. 4th British Robot Assoc. Conf (Kempston, UK) 207-213.
69.
Pruski, A., and Mutel, B.1984. Direct contact sensors based on carbon fibre. Proc. Int. Conf. Robotics and Factories of the Future: 409-415.
Pugh, A.1986b. Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non- Vision. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs) ; New York: Springer-Verlag .
72.
Purbrick, J.A.1981. A force transducer employing conductive silicone rubber . Proc. 1st Int. Conf. Robot Vision and Sensory Controls. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs), pp. 73-80.
73.
Raibert, M.H.1984. An all digital VLSI tactile array sensor. Proc. Int. Conf. on Robotics. Washington, D.C. : IEEE Computer Soc. Press. pp. 314-319.
74.
Raibert, M.H., and Tanner, J.E.1982. Design and implementation of a VLSI tactile sensing computer . Int. J. Robotics Res.1(3):3-18.
75.
Rebman, J., and Morris, K.A.1986. A tactile sensor with electroopical transduction. Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non-Vision, ed. A. Pugh, pp. 145-155. Kempston, Bedford , UK: IFS(Pubs); New York : Springer-Verlag.
76.
Robertson, B.E., and Walkden, A.J.1986. Tactile sensor system for robotics. Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non-Vision, ed. A. Pugh, pp. 89-97. Kempston, Bedford , UK: IFS(Pubs); New York : Springer-Verlag.
77.
Russell, R.A.1985a. Object recognition using articulated whisker probes. Proc. 15th Int. Symp. Industrial Robots: 605-612.
78.
Russell, R.A.1985b. A thermal sensor array to provide tactile feedback for robots. Int. J. Robotics Res.4(3):35-39.
79.
Russell, R.A.1987. Compliant-skin tactile sensor. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics and Automation. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1645-1648.
80.
Salisbury, J.K.1982 (July). Kinematic and force analysis of articulated hands. STAN-CS-82-921, Stanford University, Department of Computer Science, Stanford, Calif.
81.
Salisbury, J.K.1984. Interpretation of contact geometries from force measurements . Proc. Int. Conf. Robotics. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 240-247.
82.
Salisbury, J.K., and Craig, J.J.1982. Articulated hands: force control and kinematic issues . Int. J. Robotics Res.1(1):4-17.
83.
Sasiadek, J.Z., and Wojcik, P.J.1987. Tactile sensor signal processing using an adaptive Kalman filter. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation, 3. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1753-1759.
84.
Sato, N., Heginbotham, H., and Pugh, A.1986. A method for 3D part identification by tactile transducer . Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactie and Non-Vision, ed. A. Pugh, pp. 133-143. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs); New York: Springer-Verlag.
85.
Schneiter, J.L., and Sheridan, T.B.1984. An optical tactile sensor for manipulators. Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing1(1):65-71.
86.
Schoenwald, J.S., Thiele, A.W., and Gjellum, D.E.1987. A novel fiber optic tactile array sensor. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1792-1797.
87.
Siegel, D.M., Drucker, S.M., and Garabieta, I.1987. Performance analysis of a tactile sensor. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1493-1499.
88.
Siegel, D.M., Garabieta, I., and Hollerbach, J.M.1986. An integrated tactile and thermal sensor. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics and Automation. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1286-1291.
89.
Snyder, W.E., and St. Clair, J.1978. Conductive elastomers as a sensor for industrial parts handling equipment. Trans. Instrumentation and MeasurementIM-27(1):94-99.
90.
Stansfield, S.A.1987. Visually-aided tactile exploration. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer Soc. Press, pp. 1487-1492.
91.
Tanie, K., Komoriya, K., Kaneko, M., Tachi, S., and Fujikawa, A.1986. A high resolution tactile sensor. Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non-Vision, ed. A. Pugh, pp. 189-198. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs) ; New York: Springer-Verlag .
92.
Vranish, J.M.1986a. Magnetoresistive skin for robots. Robot Sensors Vol. 2: Tactile and Non-Vision, ed. A. Pugh, pp. 99-111. Kempston, Bedford , UK: IFS(Pubs); New York : Springer-Verlag.
93.
Vranish, J.M.1986b. Magnetoinductive skin for robots. Proc. 16th Int. Symposium Industrial Robots. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs), pp. 559-631.
94.
Vranish, J.M., Mitchell, E., and DeMoyer, R.1982. Outstanding potential shown by magnetoelastic force feedback sensors for robots. Sensor Review2(4):200-205.
95.
Warnecke, H.J., and Haaf, D.1981. Components for programmable assembly—grippers, sensors, conveying systems for an industrial robot engaged together with fixed automation . Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Assembly Automation. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs) , pp. 225-233.
96.
Wolfeld, J.A.1981. Real time control of a robot tactile sensor. MS-CIS-81-04, Moore School, University of Pennsylvania, Dept. of Computer and Information Science, Philadelphia, Pa.
97.
Wolffenbuttel, R.F., and Regtien, P.P.L.1986. Integrated capacitive tactile imaging sensor. Proc. 16th Int. Symp. Industrial Robots. Kempston , Bedford, UK: IFS(Pubs) , pp. 633-641.