While public sector employees differ from private sector employees in important aspects, limited knowledge exists regarding what accounts for these differences. This study focuses on employee absenteeism, examining variations across public, nonprofit, and for-profit sectors. We argue that the differences are shaped by both sectoral conditions and employees’ selection into sectors. Using data from the U.S. Current Population Survey between 1994 and 2019, we find that absenteeism is the highest among public sector employees, followed by nonprofit and for-profit sector employees. By tracking individuals’ absenteeism after sector switching, we reveal that entering the for-profit sector is associated with decreased absenteeism, and employees with low absenteeism propensities are equally likely to enter and leave public and nonprofit sectors. These findings indicate that public and nonprofit sector managers could effectively reduce absenteeism by retaining low-absenteeism employees.
AllenS. G. (1981). An empirical model of work attendance. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 63(1), 77. https://doi.org/10.2307/1924220
2.
AmirkhanyanA. A.KimH. J.LambrightK. T. (2008). Does the public sector outperform the nonprofit and for-profit sectors? Evidence from a national panel study on nursing home quality and access. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 27(2), 326–353. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.20327
3.
AndersenL. B.HeinesenE.PedersenL. H. (2014). How does public service motivation among teachers affect student performance in schools?Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 24(3), 651–671. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mut082
4.
BaarspulH. C.WilderomC. P. M. (2011). Do employees behave differently in public- vs private-sector organizations?: A state-of-the-art review. Public Management Review, 13(7), 967–1002. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2011.589614
Ben-NerA.RenT.PaulsonD. F. (2011). A sectoral comparison of wage levels and wage inequality in human services industries. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(4), 608–633. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010365012
7.
BierlaI.HuverB.RichardS. (2013). New evidence on absenteeism and presenteeism. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(7), 1536–1550. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2012.722120
8.
BoardmanC.BozemanB.PonomariovB. (2010). Private sector imprinting: An examination of the impacts of private sector job experience on public manager’s work attitudes. Public Administration Review, 70(1), 50–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2009.02110.x
BoselieP.Van HartenJ.VeldM. (2021). A human resource management review on public management and public administration research: Stop right there…before we go any further…. Public Management Review, 23(4), 483–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2019.1695880
BowersT.McIverM. (2000). Ill health, retirement and absenteeism amongst teachers. Research Report 235. Department for Education and Employment. HMSO.
13.
BozemanB. (2004). All organizations are public: Comparing public and private organizations. Beard Books.
14.
BozemanB.PonomariovB. (2009). Sector switching from a business to a government job: Fast-track career or fast track to nowhere?Public Administration Review, 69(1), 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2008.01942.x
15.
BrehmJ. O.GatesS. (1999). Working, shirking, and sabotage: Bureaucratic response to a democratic public. University of Michigan Press.
16.
BrewerG. A. (2008). Employee and organizational performance. In Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.), Motivation in public management: The call of public service (pp. 136–156). OUP Oxford
17.
BullockJ. B.StritchJ. M.RaineyH. G. (2015). International comparison of public and private employees’ work motives, attitudes, and perceived rewards. Public Administration Review, 75(3), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12356
18.
CallisonK.PeskoM. F. (2020). The effect of paid sick leave mandates on coverage, work absences, and presenteeism. Journal of Human Resources, 1017. https://doi.org/10/gjkcxj
19.
ChristensenR. K.WrightB. E. (2011). The effects of public service motivation on job choice decisions: Disentangling the contributions of person-organization fit and person-job fit. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21(4), 723–743. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muq085
20.
ClotfelterC. T.LaddH. F.VigdorJ. L. (2009). Are teacher absences worth worrying about in the United States?Education Finance and Policy, 4(2), 115–149. https://doi.org/10/d6tpq3
21.
ColemanJ. S. (1990). Foundations of social theory (Vol. 69, Issue 2, p. 993). Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/2579680
22.
CouchK. A.PlaczekD. W. (2010). Earnings losses of displaced workers revisited. American Economic Review, 100(1), 572–589. https://doi.org/10/cchr4r
De PaolaM.ScoppaV.PupoV. (2014). Absenteeism in the Italian public sector: The effects of changes in sick leave policy. Journal of Labor Economics, 32(2), 337–360. https://doi.org/10/gjj252
26.
DrewJ. A. R.FloodS.WarrenJ. R. (2014). Making full use of the longitudinal design of the current population survey: Methods for linking records across 16 months. Journal of Economic and Social Measurement, 39(3), 121–144. https://doi.org/10/gg88g5
27.
EdwardsV. L. (2017). Examining absenteeism in the public and non-profit sectors. International Journal of Organization Theory & Behavior. https://doi.org/10/gh7k9k
28.
EhlertA.García-MoránE. (2022). Workers’ self-selection into public sector employment: A tale of absenteeism. Kyklos, 75(3), 394–409. https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12300
29.
EskildsenJ. K.FrederiksenA.Løkke MøllerA.-K. (2021). Employee absence in public and private organizations. Applied Economics, 1–17. https://doi.org/10/gjjbp5
30.
FloodSarahKingMiriamRodgersRenaeRugglesStevenWarrenJ. RobertBackmanDanielChenAnnieCooperGraceRichardsStephanieSchouweilerMeganWestberryMichael. (2024). IPUMS CPS: Version 12.0 [dataset].Minneapolis, MN: IPUMS.https://doi.org/10.18128/D030.V12.0
31.
FrederiksenA.HansenJ. R. (2017). The increased importance of sector switching: A study of trends over a 27-year period. Administration & Society, 49(7), 1015–1042. https://doi.org/10/gbmq79
GreggP.GroutP. A.RatcliffeA.SmithS.WindmeijerF. (2011). How important is pro-social behaviour in the delivery of public services?Journal of Public Economics, 95(7), 758–766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.03.002
34.
GrossH. P.ThalerJ.WinterV. (2019). Integrating public service motivation in the job-demands-resources model: An empirical analysis to explain employees’ performance, absenteeism, and presenteeism. International Public Management Journal, 22(1), 176–206. https://doi.org/10/gfsc6n
HamannD. J.FosterN. T. (2014). An exploration of job demands, job control, stress, and attitudes in public, nonprofit, and for-profit employees. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 34(4), 332–355. https://doi.org/10/gh44jv
37.
HansenJ. R. (2014). From public to private sector: Motives and explanations for sector switching. Public Management Review, 16(4), 590–607. https://doi.org/10/gj353j
38.
HansenJ. R.LøkkeA.-K.SørensenK. L. (2019). Long-term absenteeism from work: Disentangling the impact of sector, occupational groups and gender. International Journal of Public Administration, 42(8), 628–641. https://doi.org/10/gfrgwr
39.
HarrisonD. A.MartocchioJ. J. (1998). Time for absenteeism: A 20-year review of origins, offshoots, and outcomes. Journal of Management, 24(3), 305–350. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639802400303
40.
HassanS.WrightB. E.YuklG. (2014). Does ethical leadership matter in government? Effects on organizational commitment, absenteeism, and willingness to report ethical problems. Public Administration Review, 74(3), 333–343. https://doi.org/10/f55hpq
41.
HoltS. B. (2018). For those who care: The effect of public service motivation on sector selection. Public Administration Review, 78(3), 457–471. https://doi.org/10/gdg2n7
42.
HomansG. C. (1974). Social behavior: Its elementary forms. Harcourt Brace.
43.
HsiehC.-W.YangK.FuK.-J. (2012). Motivational bases and emotional labor: Assessing the impact of public service motivation. Public Administration Review, 72(2), 241–251. https://doi.org/10/fxw3fk
44.
IchinoA.RiphahnR. T. (2005). The effect of employment protection on worker effort: Absenteeism during and after probation. Journal of the European Economic Association, 3(1), 120–143. https://doi.org/10/cmpvq7
45.
JacobsonL. S.LaLondeR. J.SullivanD. G. (1993). Earnings losses of displaced workers. The American Economic Review, 83(4), 685–709. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2117574
46.
JakobsenM.LøkkeA.-K.KeppelerF. (2023). Facing the human capital crisis: A systematic review and research agenda on recruitment and selection in the public sector. Public Administration Review, 83(6), 1635–1648. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13733
47.
JensenU. T.AndersenL. B.HoltenA.-L. (2019). Explaining a dark side: Public service motivation, presenteeism, and absenteeism. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 39(4), 487–510. https://doi.org/10/ghpkb5
48.
KahnW. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692–724. https://doi.org/10.5465/256287
49.
KjeldsenA. M.HansenJ. R. (2018). Sector differences in the public service motivation–job satisfaction relationship: Exploring the role of organizational characteristics. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 38(1), 24–48. https://doi.org/10/gcw7xh
50.
KjeldsenA. M.JacobsenC. B. (2013). Public service motivation and employment sector: Attraction or socialization?Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 23(4), 899–926. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mus039
51.
KopelmanJ. L.RosenH. S. (2016). Are public sector jobs recession-proof? Were they ever?Public Finance Review, 44(3), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1177/1091142114565042
52.
Kristof-BrownA. L.ZimmermanR. D.JohnsonE. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals’ fit at work: A meta-analysis of person–job, person–organization, person–group, and person–supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 281–342. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00672.x
53.
LapuenteV.SuzukiK.Van de WalleS. (2020). Goats or wolves? Private sector managers in the public sector. Governance, 33(3), 599–619. https://doi.org/10.1111/gove.12462
54.
LeeY.WilkinsV. M. (2011). More similarities or more differences? Comparing public and nonprofit managers’ job motivations. Public Administration Review, 71(1), 45–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2010.02305.x
55.
LeeteL. (2006). Work in the nonprofit sector. In The non-profit sector: A research handbook (2nd ed., pp. 159–179). Yale University Press.
56.
LeisinkP.SteijnB. (2009). Public service motivation and job performance of public sector employees in The Netherlands. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 75(1), 35–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852308099505
57.
LiuJ.LoebS.ShiY. (2020). More than shortages: The unequal distribution of substitute teaching. Education Finance and Policy, 1–48. https://doi.org/10/ghpj5n
MarcénM.MoralesM. (2021). The intensity of COVID-19 nonpharmaceutical interventions and labor market outcomes in the public sector. Journal of Regional Science, 61(4), 775–798. https://doi.org/10.1111/jors.12535
60.
MartocchioJ. J. (1994). The effects of absence culture on individual absence. Human Relations, 47(3), 243–262. https://doi.org/10/b3xdzx
61.
MastekaasaA. (2020). Absenteeism in the public and the private sector: Does the public sector attract high absence employees?Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 30(1), 60–76. https://doi.org/10/ghh8pc
MoynihanD. P.PandeyS. K. (2007a). The role of organizations in fostering public service motivation. Public Administration Review, 67(1), 40–53. https://doi.org/10/d49z32
65.
MoynihanD. P.PandeyS. K. (2007b). The ties that bind: Social networks, person-organization value fit, and turnover intention. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 18(2), 205–227. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mum013
66.
MoysonS.RaaphorstN.GroeneveldS.Van de WalleS. (2018). Organizational socialization in public administration research: A systematic review and directions for future research. The American Review of Public Administration, 48(6), 610–627. https://doi.org/10.1177/0275074017696160
67.
NewmanA.DonohueR.EvaN. (2017). Psychological safety: A systematic review of the literature. Human Resource Management Review, 27(3), 521–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2017.01.001
68.
OlssonM. (2009). Employment protection and sickness absence. Labour Economics, 16(2), 208–214. https://doi.org/10/b7psbt
69.
OrsiniA. (2024). The theory of rational choice. In Sociological theory: From comte to postcolonialism (pp. 529–584). Palgrave Macmillan Cham.
70.
PapenfußU.SchmidtC. A. (2023). Valuation of sector-switching and politicization in the governance of corporatized public services. Governance, 36(4), 1103–1124. https://doi.org/10.1111/gove.12721
71.
ParkJ.AhnY. (2021). Government employees’ experience and expectation of COVID-19 hardships: The moderating role of gender and race in the United States. The American Review of Public Administration, 52(1), 15–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/02750740211049280
72.
ParsonsT. (1937). The structure of social action (Vol. I, p. 817). McGrawHill.
73.
ParsonsT. (1951). The social system. Free.
74.
PerryJ. L.HondeghemA.WiseL. R. (2010). Revisiting the motivational bases of public service: Twenty years of research and an agenda for the future. Public Administration Review, 70(5), 681–690. https://doi.org/10/bdkfrh
75.
PerryJ. L.WiseL. R. (1990). The motivational bases of public service. Public Administration Review, 367–373. https://doi.org/10/bdzgb8
76.
PfeiferC. (2013). Cyclical absenteeism among private sector, public sector and self-employed workers. Health Economics, 22(3), 366–370. https://doi.org/10/f4pdws
77.
PiatakJ. S. (2018). Weathering the storm: The impact of cutbacks on public employees. Public Personnel Management, 48(1), 97–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091026018801044
78.
PiatakJ. S.SowaJ. E.JacobsonW. S.McGinnis JohnsonJ. (2020). Infusing public service motivation (PSM) throughout the employment relationship: A review of PSM and the human resource management process. International Public Management Journal, 24(1), 86–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/10967494.2020.1805381
79.
Pitt-CatsouphesM.SwanbergJ. E.BondJ. T.GalinskyE. (2004). Work-life policies and programs: Comparing the responsiveness of nonprofit and for-profit organizations. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 14(3), 291–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/nml.35
80.
PrümerS.SchnabelC. (2019). Questioning the stereotype of the “malingering bureaucrat”: Absence from work in the public and private sector in Germany. Kyklos, 72(4), 570–603. https://doi.org/10/ghh8pp
81.
QuH.RobichauR. W. (2023). Subjective well-being across the sectors: Examining differences in workers’ life satisfaction and daily experiential well-being. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 44(4), 631–654. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X231175343
82.
QuratulainS.KhanA. K. (2015). Red tape, resigned satisfaction, public service motivation, and negative employee attitudes and behaviors: Testing a model of moderated mediation. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 35(4), 307–332. https://doi.org/10/f7zj35
83.
RaineyH. G. (2014). Understanding and managing public organizations (5th ed.). Jossey-Bass & Pfeiffer Imprints, Wiley.
84.
RaineyH. G.BozemanB. (2000). Comparing public and private organizations: Empirical research and the power of the a priori. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 10(2), 447–470. https://doi.org/10/gf7c8r
85.
RiphahnR. (2004). Employment protection and effort among German employees. Economics Letters, 85(3), 353–357. https://doi.org/10/dj8w43
86.
RitzA.WeißmüllerK. S.MeynhardtT. (2022). Public value at cross points: A comparative study on employer attractiveness of public, private, and nonprofit organizations. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 43(3), 528–556. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X221098153
87.
SalamonL. M. (2010). Putting the civil society sector on the economic map of the world. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 81(2), 167–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8292.2010.00409.x
88.
ScaliaE.BeachW. W. (2020). National compensation survey: Employee benefits in the United States, March 2020 (2793; Bulletin). The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
ShossM. K. (2017). Job insecurity: An integrative review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 43(6), 1911–1939. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206317691574
SteersR. M.RhodesS. R. (1978). Major influences on employee attendance: A process model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(4), 391. https://doi.org/10/c96xj9
93.
SuX.BozemanB. (2009). Dynamics of sector switching: Hazard models predicting changes from private sector jobs to public and nonprofit sector jobs. Public Administration Review, 69(6), 1106–1114. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2009.02068.x
94.
TaoL.LiangH.WenB.HuangT. (2023). Between nature and nurture: The genetic overlap between psychological attributes and selection into public service employment. Public Administration Review, 83(4), 809–822. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13582
95.
TaylorJ. (2018). Working extra hours in the Australian public service: Organizational drivers and consequences. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 38(2), 193–217. https://doi.org/10/gdkqcw
96.
UppalS.LaRochelle-CôtéS. (2013). Understanding public-private sector differences in work absences. Insights on Canadian Society, Statistics Canada Catalogue, 75–006.
97.
van LoonN. M.VandenabeeleW.LeisinkP. (2017). Clarifying the relationship between public service motivation and in-role and extra-role behaviors: The relative contributions of person-job and person-organization fit. The American Review of Public Administration, 47(6), 699–713. https://doi.org/10.1177/0275074015617547
98.
WangR. (2024). Are teachers absent more? Examining differences in absence between K-12 teachers and other college-educated workers. Educational Review, 77(1), 154–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2024.2341033
99.
WooldridgeJ. M. (1999). Quasi-likelihood methods for count data. In Handbook of applied econometrics volume 2: Microeconomics (pp. 321–368). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1111/b.9780631216339.1999.00009.x
100.
WordJ.ParkS. M. (2015). The new public service? Empirical research on job choice motivation in the nonprofit sector. Personnel Review, 44(1), 91–118. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-07-2012-0120
101.
WrightB. E.ChristensenR. K. (2010). Public service motivation: A test of the job attraction–selection–attrition model. International Public Management Journal, 13(2), 155–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/10967491003752012
102.
WrightB. E.HassanS.ChristensenR. K. (2017). Job choice and performance: Revisiting core assumptions about public service motivation. International Public Management Journal, 20(1), 108–131. https://doi.org/10/gf5rz5
103.
WrightB. E.PandeyS. K. (2011). Public organizations and mission valence: When does mission matter?Administration & Society, 43(1), 22–44. https://doi.org/10/fvz93h
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
