Toward the Trusted Public Organization

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to probe the main determinants of organizational trust, as identified in the relevant literature: cognition-based (i.e., rational) trust and affect-based (i.e., relational) trust. This study explores the nature of trust among public employees and identifies important antecedents and moderating conditions based on systematic and rigorous empirical research. Using large data sets from Merit Principles Survey (MPS) and Best Places to Work (BPTW), as well as drawing upon the scholarly works from several disciplines, this study develops an antecedent-trust model and analyzes the different types of antecedents of organizational trust in the public sector at a hierarchical and multilevel ordering structure. The focus of the study is empirically testing the effects of vertical and shared leadership behaviors and work motivation attributes on organizational trust within U.S. federal agencies. In addition, the moderating impact of leadership on the relationship between work motivation and organizational trust is examined. This research finds that some of these predictors and moderators (e.g., vertical and shared leadership behaviors) play significant roles in fostering organizational trust directly and indirectly. Based on a discussion of the main findings, research and practical implications for public management theory and practice are provided.

Keywords

cognitive and affective trust vertical and shared leadership intrinsic and extrinsic motivation public human resource management U.S. federal agencies

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Albrecht

S. L.

Travaglione

(2003). Trust in public-sector senior management. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(1), 76-92.

Aryee

Budhwar

P. S.

Chen

Z. X.

(2002). Trust as a mediator of the relationship between organizational justice and work outcomes: Test of a social exchange model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 267-285.

Atkinson

Butcher

(2003). Trust in managerial relationships. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 18, 282-304.

Axelrod

(1984). The evolution of cooperation. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Bandura

(1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bass

B. M.

(1996). A new paradigm of leadership: An inquiry into transformational leadership. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Bass

B. M.

Riggio

R. E.

(2006). Transformational leadership (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Battaglio

Condrey

S. E.

(2009). Reforming public management: Analyzing the impact of public service reform on organizational and managerial trust. Journal of Public Administration Research & Theory, 19, 689-707.

Blau

P. M.

(1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York, NY: John Wiley.

10.

Brass

D. J.

(1992). Power in organizations: A social network perspective. In Moore

Whitt

J. A.

(Eds.), Research in politics and society (pp. 295-323). Greenwich CT: JAI Press.

11.

Burns

J. M.

(1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

12.

Cameron

Pierce

W. D.

(2002). Rewards and intrinsic motivation: Resolving the controversy. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.

13.

Cardon

M. S.

Wincent

Singh

Drnovsek

(2009). The nature and experience of entrepreneurial passion. Academy of Management Review, 34, 511-532.

14.

Carson

J. B.

Tesluk

P. E.

Marrone

J. A.

(2007). Shared leadership in teams: An investigation of antecedent conditions and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 50, 1217-1234.

15.

Choudhury

(2008). Trust in administration: An integrative approach to optimal trust. Administration & Society, 40, 586-620.

16.

Chua

R. Y.

Ingram

Morris

M. W.

(2008). From the head and the heart: Locating cognition- and affect-based trust in managers’ professional networks. Academy of Management Journal, 51, 436-452.

17.

Cook

Wall

(1980). New work attitudes measures of trust, organizational commitment, and personal need non-fulfillment. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 75, 39-52.

18.

Culbert

S. A.

McDonough

J. J.

(1986). The politics of trust and organizational empowerment. Public Administration Quarterly, 10, 171-188.

19.

Deci

E. L.

Ryan

R. M.

(1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum.

20.

Deci

E. L.

Ryan

R. M.

(2004). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.

21.

De Jong

B. A.

Elfring

(2010). How does trust affect the performance of ongoing teams? The mediating role of reflexivity, monitoring, and effort. Academy of Management Journal, 53, 535-549.

22.

Dirks

K. T.

(1999). The effects of interpersonal trust on work group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 445-455.

23.

Dirks

K. T.

(2000). Trust in leadership and team performance: Evidence from NCAA basketball. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 1004-1012.

24.

Dirks

K. T.

Ferrin

D. L.

(2002). Trust in leadership: Meta-analytic findings and implications for research and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 611-628.

25.

Dutton

J. E.

Roberts

L. M.

Bednar

(2010). Pathways for positive identity construction at work: Four types of positive identity and the building of social resources. Academy of Management Review, 35, 265-293.

26.

Ensley

M. D.

Hmieleski

K. M.

Pearce

C. L.

(2006). The importance of vertical and shared leadership within new venture top management teams: Implications for the performance of startups. Leadership Quarterly, 17, 217-231.

27.

Fox

(1974). Beyond contract: Work, power, and trust relations. London, UK: Faber and Faber.

28.

Greenleaf

R. K.

(1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. New York, NY: Paulist Press.

29.

Hackman

J. R.

Oldham

G. R.

(1975). Development of the job diagnostic survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 159-170.

30.

Hackman

J. R.

Oldham

G. R.

(1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 250-279.

31.

Herzberg

Mausner

Snyderman

(1959). The motivation to work. New York, NY: John Wiley.

32.

Hite

(2005). Evolutionary processes and paths of relationally embedded network ties in emerging entrepreneurial firms. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 29, 113-144.

33.

Holste

Fields

(2010). Trust and tacit knowledge sharing and use. Journal of Knowledge Management, 14(1), 128-140.

34.

Holtz

B. C.

Harold

C. M.

(2008). When your boss says no! The effects of leadership style and trust on employee reactions to managerial explanations. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81, 777-802.

35.

Ingram

Roberts

P. W.

(2000). Friendships among competitors in the Sydney hotel industry. American Journal of Sociology, 106, 387-423.

36.

Livengood

R. S.

Reger

R. K.

(2010). That’s our turf! Identity domains and competitive dynamics. Academy of Management Review, 35(1), 48-66.

37.

Johnson

Chang

Yang

(2010). Commitment and motivation at work: The relevance of employee identity and regulatory focus. Academy of Management Review, 35, 226-245.

38.

Johnson

Grayson

(2005). Cognitive and affective trust in service delivery. Journal of Business Research, 58, 500-507.

39.

Kennedy

J. R.

Anderson

R. D.

(2002). Impact of leadership style and emotions on subordinate performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 13, 545-559.

40.

Kline

R. B.

(2005). Principles and practices of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford.

41.

Kramer

(1996). Divergent realities and convergent disappointments in the hierarchic relation: Trust and the intuitive auditor at work. In Kramer

R. M.

Tyler

T. R.

(Eds.), Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research (pp. 216-245). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

42.

Ladebo

O. J.

(2006). Perceptions of trust and employees’ attitudes: A look at Nigeria’s agricultural extension workers. Journal of Business and Psychology, 20, 409-477.

43.

Lewicki

R. J.

Bunker

B. B.

(1996). Developing and maintaining trust in work relationships. In Kramer

R. M.

Tyler

T. R.

(Eds.), Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research (pp. 114-139). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

44.

Lowi

(1964). American business, public policy, case-studies, and political theory. World Politics, 16, 677-715.

45.

Luhmann

(1979). Trust and power. New York, NY: John Wiley.

46.

Matthai

J. M.

(1989). Employee perception of trust, satisfaction, and commitment as predictors of turnover intentions in a mental health setting. Dissertation Abstracts International, 5(2).

47.

McAllister

D. J.

(1995). Affect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 24-59.

48.

McCauley

D. P.

Kuhnert

K. W.

(1992). A theoretical review and empirical investigation of employee trust. Public Administration Quarterly, 16(2), 265-285.

49.

Mehra

Dixon

Brass

Robertson

(2006). The social network ties of group leaders: Implications for group performance and leader reputation. Organization Science, 17(1), 64-79.

50.

Merit Systems Protection Board (MSPB) Report. (2010). A call to action: Improving first-level supervision of federal employees. Washington, DC: Office of Policy and Evaluation.

51.

Mishra

(1996). Organizational responses to crisis: The centrality of trust. In Kramer

R. M.

Tyler.

T. R.

(Eds.), Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research (pp. 261-287). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

52.

Morris

(1995). Creating and maintaining trust. Training & Development, 49, 52-53.

53.

Moynihan

D. P.

(2008). The normative model in decline? Public service motivation in the age of governance. In Perry

J. L.

Hondeghem

(Eds.), Motivation in public management: The call of public service (pp. 247-267). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

54.

Moynihan

D. P.

Pandey

S. K.

(2007). Finding workable levers over work motivation: Comparing job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment. Administration & Society, 39, 803-832.

55.

Moynihan

D. P.

Pandey

S. K.

Wright

B. E.

(2009). Pulling the levers: Leadership, public service motivation and mission valence. Paper presented at the International Public Service Research Conference, Bloomington, IN.

56.

Newell

Reeher

Ronayne

(2008). The trusted leader: Building the relationships that make government work. Washington, DC: CQ Press.

57.

Nyhan

R. C.

(2000). Changing the paradigm: Trust and its role in public sector organizations. The American Review of Public Administration, 30, 87-109.

58.

Oldham

G. R.

Cummings

(1996). Employee creativity: Personal and contextual factors at work. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 607-634.

59.

Paarlberg

L. E.

Lavigna

(2010). Transformational leadership and public service motivation: Driving individual and organizational performance. Public Administration Review, 70, 710-718.

60.

Paarlberg

L. E.

Perry

J. L.

Hondeghem

(2008). From theory to practice: Strategies for applying public service motivation. In Perry

J. L.

Hondeghem

(Eds.), Motivation in public management: The call of public service (pp. 268-293). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

61.

Park

S. M.

(2010). The effects of personnel reform systems on Georgia State employees’ attitudes: An empirical analysis from a principal-agent theoretical perspective. Public Management Review, 12, 403-437.

62.

Park

S. M.

Rainey

H. G.

(2007). Antecedents, mediators, and consequences of affective, normative, and continuance commitment: Empirical tests of commitment effects in federal agencies. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 27, 197-226.

63.

Park

S. M.

Rainey

H. G.

(2008). Leadership and public service motivation in U.S. federal agencies. International Public Management Journal, 11(1), 109-142.

64.

Pearce

C. L.

(2004). The future of leadership: Combining vertical and shared leadership to transform knowledge work. Academy of Management Executive, 18(1), 47-57.

65.

Pearce

C. L.

Conger

J. A.

(2003). All those years ago: The historical underpinnings of shared leadership. In Pearce

C. L.

Conger

J. A.

(Eds.), Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership (pp. 1-18). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

66.

Pearce

C. L.

Manz

C. C.

Sims

H. P.

(2008). The roles of vertical and shared leadership in the enactment of executive corruption: Implications for research and practice. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 353-359.

67.

Perry

J. L.

Hondeghem

(2008). Directions for future theory and research. In Perry

J. L.

Hondeghem

(Eds.), Motivation in public management: The call of public service (pp. 294-313). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

68.

Perry

R. W.

Mankin

L. M.

(2004). Understanding employee trust in management. Public Personnel Management, 33, 277-290.

69.

Perry

J. L.

Porter

L. W.

(1982). Factors affecting the context for motivation in public organizations. Academy of Management Review, 7, 89-98.

70.

Puranam

Vanneste

B. S.

(2009). Trust and governance: Untangling a tangled web. Academy of Management Review, 34(1), 11-31.

71.

Rainey

H. G.

(2009). Understanding and managing public organizations (4th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

72.

Rainey

H. G.

Koehler

Jung

(2008). Public values and public service motivation: How do public values relate to patterns of public service motivation? A paper proposed for the workshop on public values and public interest-normative questions in the evaluation and development of the public sector, The University of Georgia, Athens.

73.

Rainey

H. G.

Steinbauer

(1999). Galloping elephants: Developing elements of a theory of effective government organizations. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 1, 1-32.

74.

Raudenbush

S. W.

Bryk

A. S.

Cheong

Congdon

R. T.

(2000). HLM 5: Hierarchical linear and non-linear modeling. Chicago,: Scientific Software International.

75.

Reece

Brandt

(1999). Effective human relations in organizations (7th ed.). Boston: Houghton Miffin.

76.

Reinke

S. J.

(2003). Does the form really matter? Leadership, trust, and acceptance of the performance appraisal process. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 23(1), 23-37.

77.

Robinson

S. L.

(1996). Trust and breach of the psychological contract. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41, 574-599.

78.

Roth

P. L.

(1994). Missing data: A conceptual review for applied psychologists. Personnel Psychology, 47, 537-560.

79.

Rousseau

D. M.

Sitkin

S. B.

Burt

R. S.

Camerer

(1998). Not so different after all: A cross-discipline view of trust. Academy of Management Review, 23, 393-404.

80.

Ryan

R. M.

Deci

E. L.

(2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67.

81.

Ryan

R. M.

Deci

E. L.

(2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.

82.

Scott

S. G.

Bruce

R. A.

(1994). Determinants of innovative behavior: A path model of individual innovation in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 580-607.

83.

Shaw

R. B.

(1997). Trust in the balance: Building successful organizations on results, integrity and concern. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

84.

Swanson

R. A.

Holton

E. F.

(2001). Foundations of human resource development. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

85.

The best places to work. (2005). Retrieved from http://bestplacestowork.org/BPTW/about/

86.

Tietjen

M. A.

Myers

R. M.

(1998). Motivation and job satisfaction. Management Decision, 36, 226-231.

87.

Tyler

T. R.

Kramer

R. M.

(1996). Whither trust? In Kramer

R. M.

Tyler

T. R.

(Eds.), Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research (pp. 1-15). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

88.

U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board. (2005). Merit principles survey 2005. Washington, DC: Author.

89.

U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board. (2007). Merit principles survey 2007. Washington, DC: Author.

90.

Van Kleef

G. A.

Homan

A. C.

Beersma

Van Knippenberg

Damen

(2009). Searing sentiment or cold calculation? The effects of leader emotional displays on team performance depend on follower epistemic motivation. Academy of Management Journal, 52(3), 562-580.

91.

Vandenabeele

(2007). Toward a public administration theory of public service motivation. Public Management Review, 9, 545-556.

92.

Van Kleef

G. A.

Homan

A. C.

Beersma

Van Knippenberg

Damen

(2009). Academy of Management Journal, 52, 562-580.

93.

Van Wart

(2005). Dynamics of leadership in public service: Theory and practice. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

94.

Webber

S. S.

Klimoski

R. J.

(2004). Client-project manager engagements, trust, and loyalty. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25, 997-1013.

95.

Weiss

H. M.

(2002). Deconstructing job satisfaction: Separating evaluations, beliefs, and affective experiences. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 173-194.

96.

Werner

J. M.

DeSimone

R. L.

(2009). Human resource development (5th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage/South-Western.

97.

Wilson

K. S.

Sin

Conlon

D. E.

(2010). What about the leader in leader-member exchange? The impact of resource exchanges and substitutability on the leader. Academy of Management Review, 35, 358-372.

98.

Wong

Boh

W. F.

(2010). Leveraging the ties of others to build a reputation for trustworthiness among peers. Academy of Management Journal, 53(1), 129-148.

99.

Word

Park

S. M.

(2009). Working across the divide: Job involvement in the public and nonprofit sectors. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 29(2), 103-133.

100.

Wright

B. E.

Pandey

S. K.

(2010). Transformational leadership in the public sector: Does structure matter? Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 20(1), 75-89.

101.

J. B.

Tsui

A. S.

Kinicki

A. J.

(2010). Consequences of differentiated leadership in groups. The Academy of Management Journal, 53(1), 90-106.

102.

Yukl

G. A.

(1989). Leadership in organizations (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

103.

Yukl

G. A.

(2006). Leadership in organizations (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

104.

Zand

D. E.

(1972). Trust and managerial problem solving. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17, 229-239.

105.

Zhang

Bartol

K. M.

(2010). Linking empowering leadership and employee creativity: The influence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and creative process engagement. Academy of Management Journal, 53(1), 107-128.