The study investigated the relationships of problem behaviors, emotions, and psychosocial factors. Self-report measures of the variables were obtained from 711 junior high school students from 12 to 16 years of age. A multidimensional scaling (MDS) of the data identified a three-dimensional model "positive coping resources/negative coping re-sources," "rebellion from adult norms/conformity to adult norms," and "secretive! obvious") that fit both for males and for females and accounted for 85% of the variance in the data. The model suggested that males who do not have positive coping resources (adult support inside or outside of the family and high self-esteem) may externalize (act out) their problems whereasfemales who lack positive coping resources may internalize their problems and report depressive symptoms. Intervening with these adolescents to increase their positive coping resources, particularly supportive adults in their environment, may assist them to limit their internalizing and externalizing behaviors.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abbott, A.
(1990). Positivism and interpretation in sociology: Lessons for sociologists from the history of stress research. Sociological Forum, 5, 435-458.
2.
Achenbach, T. M.
, & Edelbrock, C. S. (1979). The child behavior profile: II. Boys aged 12-16 and girls aged 6-11 and 12-16. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 223-233.
3.
Ahlgren, A.
, & Norem-Hebeisen, A. A. (1979). Self-esteem patterns distinctive of groups of drug abusing and other dysfunctional adolescents. International Journal of Addictions, 14, 759-777.
4.
Akers, R. L.
, Massey, J., Clarke, W., & Lauer, R. M. (1983). Are self-reports of adolescent deviance valid? Biochemical measures, randomized response, and the bogus pipeline in smoking behavior. Social Forces, 62, 234-251.
5.
Bauman, K. E.
, Koch, G. G., & Bryan, E. S. (1982). Validity of self-reports of adolescent cigarette smoking. International Journal of the Addictions, 17, 1131-1136.
6.
Benda, B. B.
, & DiBlasio, F. A. (1991). Comparison of four theories of adolescent sexual exploration. Deviant Behavior, 12, 235-257.
7.
Bernstein, G. A.
, Garfinkel, B. D., & Hoberman, H. M. (1989). Self-reported anxiety in adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 384-386.
8.
Brack, C. J. (1989). The relationship between problem behaviors and emotions in early adolescents. (Doctoal dissertation, Indiana University, 1989). Dissertation Abstracts International, 50, 12B.
9.
Brook, J. S.
, Lukoff; I. F., & Whiteman, M. (1977). Peer, family, and personality dimensions as related to adolescents. Psychological Reports, 41, 1095-1102.
10.
Brown, J. M.
, & Sime, J. D. (1982). Multidimensional scaling analysis of qualitative data. In E. Shepherd & J. P. Watson (Eds.), Personal meanings: The first Guy's Hospital symposium on the individual frame of reference (pp. 71-90). Chichester, Great Britain: Wiley.
11.
Buser, S. J.
(1989). A counseling practitioner's primer to the use of multidimensional scaling. Journal of Counseling and Development, 67, 420-423.
12.
Byrne, B. M.
, & Shavelson, R. J. (1987). Adolescent self-concept: Testing the assumption of equivalent structure across gender. American Educational Research Journal, 24, 365-385.
13.
Callan, V. J.
, & Jackson, D. (1986). Children of alcoholic fathers and recovered alcoholic fathers: Personal and family functioning. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 47, 180-182.
14.
Campanelli, P. C.
, Dielman, T. E., & Shope, J. T. (1987). Validity of adolescents' self-reports of alcohol use and misuse using a bogus pipeline procedure. Adolescence, 22, 7-22.
15.
Crockett, L. J.
, Schulenberg, J. E., & Petersen, A. C. (1987). Congruence between objective and self-report data in a sample of young adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 2, 383-392.
16.
Davison, M. L.
, Richards, P. S., & Rounds, J. B. (1976). Multidimensional scaling in counseling research and practice. Journal of Counseling and Development, 65, 178-184.
17.
DeLongis, A.
, Coyne, J. C., Dakof, G., Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1982). Relationship of daily hassles, uplifts, and major life events to health status. Health Psychology, 1, 119-136.
18.
Donovan, J. E.
, & Jessor, R. (1985). Strucure of problem behavior in adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 890-904.
19.
Donovan, J. E.
, Jessor, R., & Costa, F. (1988). Syndrome of problem behavior in adolescence: A replication. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 762-765.
20.
Elster, A. B.
, Lamb, M. E., Peters, L., Kahn, J., & Tavare, J. (1987). Judicial involvement and conduct problems of fathers of infants born to adolescent mothers. Pediatrics, 79, 230-234.
21.
Enns, C. Z.
(1993). Feminist counseling and therapy. Counseling Psychologist, 21, 3-87.
22.
Farber, E. D.
, & Joseph, J. A. (1985). The maltreated adolescent: Patterns of physical abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 9, 201-206.
23.
Farrow, J. A.
, & French, J. (1986). The drug abuse-delinquency connection revisited. Adolescence, 21, 951-960.
24.
Feldman, S. S.
, Rubenstein, J. L., & Rubin, C. (1988). Depressive affect and restraint in early adolescents: Relationships with family structure, family process and friendship support. Journal of Early Adolescence, 8, 279-296.
25.
Fitzgerald, L. F.
, & Hubert, L. J. (1987). Multidimensional scaling: Some possibilities for counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 469-480.
26.
Friedman, A. S.
, Utada, A. T., Glickman, N. W., & Morrissey, M. R. (1987). Psychopathology as an antecedent to, and as a "consequence" of, substance use in adolescence. Journal of Drug Education, 17, 233-244.
27.
Garrison, C.Z.
, Schluchter, M.D., Schoenback, V.J., & Kaplan, B.K. (1989). Epidemiology of depressive symptoms in young adolescents. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 343-351.
28.
Gersten, J. C.
, Langner, T. S., Eisenberg, J. G., & Simcha-Fagan, O. (1977). An evaluation of the etiologic role of stressful life-change events in psychological disorders. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 18, 228-244.
29.
Gillmore, M. R.
, Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Day, L. E., & Moore, M. (1991). Structure of problem behaviors in preadolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 499-506.
30.
Gross, J.
, & McCaul, M. E. (1992). An evaluation of a psychoeducational and substance use risk reduction intervention for children of substance abusers. [Special issue: Programs for change: Office for Substance Abuse Prevention demonstration models]. Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 75-87.
31.
Hibbard, R. A.
, Brack, C. J., Rauch, S., & Orr, D. P. (1988). Abuse, feelings, and health behaviors in a student population. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 142, 326-330.
32.
Hibbard, R. A.
, Ingersoll, G. M., & Orr, D. P. (1990). Behavioral risk, emotional risk, and child abuse among adolescents in a nonclinical setting. Pediatrics, 86, 896-901.
33.
Ingersoll, G. M.
, & Orr, D. P. (1989). Behavioral and emotional risk in early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 396-408.
34.
Janus, M. D.
, McCormack, A., Burgess, A. W., & Hartman, C. (1987). Adolescent runaways: Causes and consequences. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
35.
Jessor, R.
(1982). Problem behavior and developmental transition in adolescence. Journal of School Health, 52, 295-300.
36.
Jessor, R.
(1987). Risky driving and adolescent problem behavior: An extention of problem-behavior theory. Alcohol, Drugs, and Driving, 3, 1-11.
37.
Jessor, R.
, Chase, J. A., & Donovan, J. E. (1980). Psychosocial correlates of marijuana use and problem drinkdng in a national sample of adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 70, 604-613.
38.
Jessor, R.
, & Jessor, S. L. (1977). Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth. New York: Academic Press.
39.
Jessor, S. L.
, & Jessor, R. (1975). Transition from virginity to nonvirginity among youth: A social-psychological study over time. Developmental Psychology, 11, 473-484.
40.
Joebgen, A. M.
, & Richards, M. H. (1990). Maternal education and employment: Mediating maternal and adolescent emotional adjustment. [Special issue: Parent work and early adolescent development.] Journal of Early Adolescence, 10, 329-343.
41.
Johnston, L. D.
, O'Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. G. (1987). Psychotherapeutic, licit, and illicit use of drugs among adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 8, 36-51.
42.
Johnston, L.
, O'Malley, P., & Eveland, L. (1978). Drugs and delinquency: A search for causal connections. In D. B. Kandel (Ed.), Longitudinal research on drug use: Empirical findings and methodological issues (pp. 132-156). Washington, DC: Hemisphere-Wiley.
43.
Kaplan, H. B.
(1985). Testing a general theory of drug abuse and other deviant adaptions. Journal of Drug Issues, 15, 477-492.
44.
Kimball, M. M.
(1989). A new perspective on women's math achievement. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 198-214.
45.
Kruskal, J. B.
, & Wish, M. (1978). Multidimensional scaling. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
46.
Loeber, R.
(1985). Patterns and development of antisocial child behaviors. Annals of Child Development, 2, 77-116.
47.
Magolda, M. B.
(1990). Gender differences in epistemological development. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 555-561.
48.
Margolin, L.
, & Blyth, D. A. (1988). The family as a looking glass: Interpreting family influences on adolescent self-esteem from a symbolic interaction perspective. Journal of Early Adolescence, 8, 211-224.
49.
Marzuk, P. M.
, & Mann, J. J. (1988). Suicide and substance abuse. Psychiatric Annals, 18, 639-645.
50.
McGrath, E.
, Keita, G. P., Strickland, B. R., & Russo, N. F. (Eds.). (1990). Women and depression. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
51.
Moran, D. B.
, & Eckenrode, J. (1991). Gender differences in costs and benefits of peer relationships during adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Research, 6, 396-409.
52.
Morrow, K. B.
(1991). Attributions of female adolescent incest victims regarding their molestation. Child Abuse and Neglect, 15, 477-483.
53.
Murray, G. F.
(1986). Marijuana use and social control: A sociological perspective on deviance. International Journal of the Addictions, 21, 657-669.
54.
National Institute of Drug Abuse
. (1987). National household survey on drug abuse. Washington, DC: Author.
55.
Newcomb, M. D.
, Huba, G. J., & Bentler, P. M. (1981). A multidimensional assessment of stressful life events among adolescents: Derivation and correlates. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22, 400-415.
56.
Newcomb, M. D.
, Maddahian, E., & Bentler, P. M. (1986). Risk factors for drug use among adolescents: Concurrent and longitudinal analyses. American Journal of Public Health, 76, 525-531.
57.
Newmann, J. P.
(1984). Sex differences in depressive symptoms. In J. R. Greeley (Ed.), Research in community and mental health, Vol. 4 (pp. 301-323). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
58.
Norusis, M. J.
(1990). SPSS Base System User's Guide. Chicago: SPSS, Inc.
59.
Orr, D. P.
, Wilbrandt, M. L., Brack, C. J., Rauch, S. P., & Ingersoll, G. M. (1989). Reported sexual behaviors and self-esteem among young adolescents. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 143, 86-90.
60.
Otero-Lopez, J. M.
, Miron-Redondo, L., & Luengo-Martin, A. (1989). Influence of family and peer group on the use of drugs by adolescents. International Journal of Addictions, 24, 1065-1082.
61.
Rae-Grant, N.
, Thomas, B. H., Offord, D. R., & Boyle, M. H. (1989). Risk, protective factors, and the prevalence of behavioral and emotional disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 262-268.
62.
Ried, L. D.
(1989). A path analytic examination of differential social control theory. Journal of Drug Education, 19, 139-156.
63.
Robbins, C.
, Kaplan, H. B., & Martin, S. S. (1985). Antecedents of pregnancy among unmarried adolescents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47, 567-583.
64.
Rosenberg, M.
(1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
65.
Rosenberg, M.
(1979). Conceiving the selfNew York: Basic Books.
66.
Rutter, M.
(1985). Resilience in the face of adversity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598-611.
67.
Shepard, R. N.
, Romney, A. K., & Nerlove, S. B. (1972). Multidimensional scaling: Theory and applications in the behavioral sciences, Vol. 1: Theory. New York: Seminar Press.
68.
Shiflett, S. C.
, Eckholdt, H. M., Keller, S. E., Schleifer, S. J., & Bartlett, J. A. (1991, August). Relationship of loneliness to mood and behavior among minority adolescents. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association annual convention, San Francisco.
69.
Siddique, C. M.
, & D'Arcy, C. (1984). Adolescence, stress, and psychological well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 13, 459-473.
70.
Siegel, J. M.
, & Brown, J. D. (1988). A prospective study of stressful circumstances, illness symptoms, and depressed mood among adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 24, 715-721.
71.
Simmons, R. G.
, & Blyth, D. A. (1987). Moving into adolescence. New York: Aldine.
72.
Simons, R. L.
, & Miller, M. G. (1987). Adolescent depression: Assessing the impact of negative cognitions and socioenvironmnental problems. Social Work, 32, 326-330.
73.
Single, E.
, Kandel, D., & Johnson, B. D. (1975). The reliability and validity of drug use responses in a large scale longitudinal survey. Journal of Drug Issues, 5, 426-453.
74.
Smart, R. G.
, & Jarvis, G. K. (1981). Do self-report studies of drug use really give dependable results? Journal of Criminology, 23, 83-92.
75.
Stager, S. F.
, Chassin, L., & Young, R. D. (1983). Determinants of self-esteem among labeled adolescents. Social Psychology Quarterly, 46, 3-10.
76.
Werner, E. E.
, & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York: McGraw-Hill.
77.
Williams, R.
, & Gillies, P. (1984). Do we need objective measures to validate self-report smoking? Public Health London, 98, 294-298.
78.
Yagamuchi, K.
, & Kandel, D. B. (1984a). Patterns of drug use from adolescence to young adulthood: II. Sequences of progression. American Journal of Public Health, 74, 668-672.
79.
Yagamuchi, K.
, & Kandel, D. B. (1984b). Patterns of drug use from adolescence to young adulthood: III. Predictors of progression. American Journal of Public Health, 74, 673-681.
80.
Young, F. W.
(1987). Multidimensional scaling: History, theory, and applications. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
81.
Zabin, L. S.
(1984). The association between smoking and sexual behavior among teens in U.S. contraceptive clinics. American Journal of Public Health, 73, 261-263.
82.
Zabin, L. S.
, Hardy, J. S., Smith, E. A., & Hirsch, M. B. (1986). Substance use and its relation to sexual activity among inner-city adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 7, 320-331.
83.
Zelnick, M.
, & Kantner, J. F. (1980). Sexual activity, contraceptive use and pregnancy among metropolitan teenagers: 1971-1979. Family Planning Perspectives, 12, 230-237.
