Origins of Cigarette Smoking in Academic Achievement,Stress and Social Expectations: Does Gender Make a Difference?

Abstract

This research is based on a panel study of urban black adolescents (N = 536) with six to eight years intervening between measuring the predictors and measuring subsequent smoking initiation. Prior research with white and largely school-drawn samples has demonstrated that poor school achievement has a significant influence on smoking initiation. The same relationship held in this black youth sample, with a stronger effect noted for females than for males. Two major competing explanations of this relationship then were tested: (1) psychogenic, which postulated smoking as a means of coping with school related stress and; (2) differential socialization, which postulated smoking as an outcome of adherence to divergent social norms. Separate prediction models were tested for males and females. Psychogenic variables (worry about school performance) significantly increased females' smoking risk, but not males'. Social expectancy (perceptions of one's chances in the opportunity structure), an indicator of differential socialization, added significantly to males' risk of smoking initiation, but not females'. Neither significantly reduced the poor academic achievement-smoking link.

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Bachman, J. G. , Johnston, L. D. & O'Malley, P. M. (1981). Smoking, drinking and drug use among American high school students: Correlates and trends, 1975-1979. American Journal of Public Health, 71, 59-69.

Baer, D. J. (1966). Scholastic aptitude and smoking attitude and behavior of college males. Journal of Psychology, 64, 63-68.

Banks, M. H. , Bewley, B. R. , Bland, J. M. , Dean, J. R. & Pollard, J. (1978). Long term study of smoking by secondary school children. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 53, 12-19.

Bewley, B. R. (1978). Smoking in childhood. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 54, 197-198.

Bewley, B. R. & Bland, J. M. (1977). Academic performance and social factors related to cigarette smoking by school children. British Journal of Preventive and Social Medicine, 31, 18-24.

Brunswick, A. F. (1980). Social meanings and developmental needs: Perspectives on black youths drug abuse. Youth and Society, 4, 449-473.

Brunswick, A. F. & Josephson, E. (1972). Adolescent health in Harlem. American Journal of Public Health, Supplement, (October).

Brunswick, A. F. & Messeri, P. (1983). Causal factors in onset on adolescents' cigarette smoking: A prospective study of urban black youth. Advances in Alcohol & Substance Abuse, 3, 35-52.

Clarke, J. H. , MacPherson, B. V. & Holmes, D. R. (1982). Cigarette smoking and external locus of control among young adolescents. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 23, 253-259.

10.

Coleman, J. S. , Campbell, E. O. , Hobson, C. J. , McPartland, J. , Mood, A. M. , Weinfeld, F. D. & York, R. L. (1966) Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

11.

Creswell, W. H., Jr. , Huffman, W. J. & Stone, D. B. (1970). Youth smoking behavior characteristics and their educational implications. Champaign, IL.

12.

Green, D. E. (1979). Teenage smoking: Immediate and long-term patterns. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office.

13.

Huntwork, D. & Ferguson, L. W. (1977). Drug use and deviation from self-concept norms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 5, 53-60.

14.

Jessor, R. T. & Jessor, S. L. (1977) Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth. New York: Academic Press.

15.

Kaplan, H. B. , Martin, S. S. & Robbins, C. (1982). Application of a general theory of deviant behavior: Self-derogation and adolescent drug use. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 23, 274-294.

16.

Mausner, B. (1973). An ecological view of Cigarette smoking. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 81, 650-658.

17.

National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). (1978). Health United States, 1978. Hyattsville, MD: Public Health Service.

18.

Pflaum, J. (1965) Smoking behavior: A critical review of research. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1, 195-209.

19.

Pumroy, D. K. (1967). Cigarette smoking and academic achievement. Journal of General Psychology, 77, 31-34.

20.

Radloff, L. (1975). Sex differences in depression: Do women always have higher rates? Sex Roles, 1, 249-265.

21.

Reeder, L. G. (1977). Sociocultural factors in the etiology of smoking behavior: An assessment. M. E. Jarvik , J. W. Cullen , E. R. Gritz , T. M. Vogt , L. J. West , (Eds.) Research on Smoking Behavior, NIDA Research Monograph #17, pp. 186-201. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

22.

Roberts, C. J. , Fosel, E. F. & Lillich, L. C. (1970). Association of psychosocial factors to the smoking practices of high school students. Chronic Diseases Quarterly, August, Supplement #17.

23.

Smith, G. M. (1970). Personality and smoking: A review of the empirical literature. In W. A. Hurt (Ed.) Learning Mechanisms in Smoking. Chicago: Aldine Publishing.

24.

Veldman, D. J. & Bown, O. H. (1968). Relationships of cigarette smoking to academic achievement, cognitive abilities, and attitudes toward authority. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 3, 513-517.

25.

Verbrugge, L. (1976). Sex differentials in morbidity and mortality in the United States. Social Biology, 23, 275-296.

26.

Williams, T. M. (1972). Summary and Implications of Review of Literature Related to Adolescent Smoking. Bethesda, MD: National Clearinghouse for Smoking and Health.