Self-esteem has always been one of the most central elements of psychological research. So, what exactly is the role of self-esteem in the social-emotional development and maladaptive behavior formation among children and adolescents? Based on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory perspective, this study explored the primordial role of self-esteem in human development based on 3-year, 3-wave longitudinal follow-up data from 208 upper elementary and 246 middle school students. Results of cross-lagged network analysis revealed that self-esteem was the strongest predictor of social-emotional and maladaptive behaviors in elementary school grades 4→5, 5→6, and middle school grades 7→8. In grades 8→9, although loneliness was the strongest predictor, self-esteem remained one of the most stable predictors. This study reveals for the first time the foundational role of self-esteem in social-emotional and maladaptive behaviors based on a cross-lagged network analysis approach, providing important theoretical implications for understanding the prominence of self-esteem in an individual’s physical and mental development. At the same time, it also offers important practical foundations for promoting the physical and mental health of individuals from the perspective of self-esteem intervention.
BartlettM. Y.ValdesoloP.ArpinS. N. (2020). The paradox of power: The relationship between self-esteem and gratitude. The Journal of Social Psychology, 160(1), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2019.1601609
2.
BaumeisterR. F.CampbellJ. D.KruegerJ. I.VohsK. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles?Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(1), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.01431
3.
BillieuxJ.MaurageP .Lopez-FernandezO.KussD. J.GriffithsM. D. (2015). Can disordered mobile phone use be considered a behavioral addiction? An update on current evidence and a comprehensive model for future research. Current Addiction Reports, 2(2), 156–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-015-0054-y
4.
BonellC.FletcherA.Fitzgerald-YauN.HaleD.AllenE.ElbourneD.JonesR.BondL.WigginsM.MinersA.LegoodR.ScottS.ChristieD.VinerR. (2015). Initiating change locally in bullying and aggression through the school environment (INCLUSIVE): A pilot randomised controlled trial. Health Technology Assessment, 19(53), 1–110. https://doi.org/10.3310/hta19530
5.
BorsboomD.CramerA. O. J. (2013). Network analysis: An integrative approach to the structure of psychopathology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9(1), 91–121. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185608
6.
BrandenN. (1994). The six pillars of self-esteem. Bantam Books, Inc.
7.
BrownJ. D.MarshallM. A. (2001). Self-esteem and emotion: Some thoughts about feelings. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(5), 575–584. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201275006
8.
BrownR. P. (2003). Measuring individual differences in the tendency to forgive: Construct validity and links with depression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(6), 759–771. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203029006008
9.
BudiartoY.HelmiA. F. (2021). Shame and self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Europe's Journal of Psychology, 17(2), 131–145. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.2115
CabrasC.BuyukbayraktarÇ. G.LoiG.SechiC. (2022). The propensity to forgive and self-esteem in catholic and Islamic contexts: Italy and Turkey. Journal of Psychology, 156(5), 367–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2022.2047875
12.
CacioppoS.GrippoA. J.LondonS.GoossensL.CacioppoJ. T. (2015). Loneliness: Clinical import and interventions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 238–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615570616
13.
CamposJ. J.CamposR. G.BarrettK. C. (1989). Emergent themes in the study of emotional development and emotion regulation. Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 394–402. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.25.3.394
14.
CaseR.HaywardS.LewisM.HurstP. (1988). Toward a neo-Piagetian theory of cognitive and emotional development. Developmental Review, 8(1), 1–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(88)90010-x
15.
CheekJ. M. (1983). Revised cheek and buss shyness scale. Journal of Personality Assessment.
16.
ChenD. (2007). The study on the emotional experience and the involvement in social comparison of maximizers and satisficers(Unpublished doctorial dissertation). Shanxi Normal University.
CohenT. R.WolfS. T.PanterA. T.InskoC. A. (2011). Introducing the GASP scale: A new measure of guilt and shame proneness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(5), 947–966. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022641
DonnellanM. B.TrzesniewskiK. H.RobinsR. W .MoffittT. E.CaspiA. (2005). Low self-esteem is related to aggression, antisocial behavior, and delinquency. Psychological Science, 16(4), 328–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01535.x
22.
DurlakJ. A.DomitrovichC. E.WeissbergR. P.GullottaT. P. (Eds.), (2015). Handbook of social and emotional learning: Research and practice. The Guilford Press.
23.
EpskampS.BorsboomD.FriedE. I. (2018). Estimating psychological networks and their accuracy: A tutorial paper. Behavior Research Methods, 50(1), 195–212. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0862-1
24.
EpskampS.CramerA. O.WaldorpL. J.SchmittmannV. D.BorsboomD. (2012). qgraph: Network visualizations of relationships in psychometric data. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(4), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i04
25.
FacciniF.GazzilloF.GormanB. S. (2020). Guilt, shame, empathy, self-esteem, and traumas: New data for the validation of the interpersonal guilt rating scale–15 self-report (IGRS-15s). Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 48(1), 79–100. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2020.48.1.79
26.
FangX.ChenL.WangJ.ZhangQ.MoL. (2020). Do all types of compassion increase prosocial lying?Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 13(1), 437–451. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S238246
27.
Feng HuapingH. (2012). Perfectionism and delay of gratification, their influence on the relationship between attention deficit hyperactivity propensity and regret(Unpublished doctorial dissertation). Beijing Forestry University.
28.
FiteP. J.RaineA.Stouthamer-LoeberM.LoeberR.PardiniD. A. (2010). Reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent males: Examining differential outcomes 10 years later in early adulthood. Criminal Justice & Behavior An International Journal, 37(2), 141–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809353051
29.
FriedmanJ.HastieT.TibshiraniR. (2010). Regularization paths for generalized linear models via coordinate descent. Journal of Statistical Software, 33(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004178922.i-328.7
30.
FrijdaN. H.KuipersP.Ter SchureE. (1989). Relations among emotion, appraisal, and emotional action readiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(2), 212–228. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.2.212
31.
FunkhouserC. J.ChackoA. A.CorreaK. A.KaiserA. J.ShankmanS. A. (2021). Unique longitudinal relationships between symptoms of psychopathology in youth: A crosslagged panel network analysis in the ABCD study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 62(2), 184–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13256
32.
GlassK.FloryK.MartinA.HankinB. L. (2010). ADHD and comorbid conduct problems among adolescents: Associations with self-esteem and substance use. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 3(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-010-0042-y
33.
GuanF.XiangY.ChenO.WangW.ChenJ. (2018). Neural basis of dispositional awe. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 12(1), 209. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00209
HawkleyL. C.CacioppoJ. T. (2010). Loneliness matters: A theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 40(2), 218–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8
36.
HeA. M.WanJ. J.HuiQ. P. (2019). Mental health status of mobile phone dependent adolescent and the relationship with life events and academic burnout. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27(2), 410–413. https://doi.org/10.16128/j.cnki.1005-3611.2019.02.041
37.
HeA. M.WanJ. J.HuiQ. P. (2022). The relationship between mobile phone dependence and mental health in adolescents: The mediating role of academic burnout and the moderating role of coping style. Psychological Development and Education, 38(3), 391–398. https://doi.org/10.15354/BECE.22.AB008
38.
HeN.XiangY. (2021). How child maltreatment impacts internalized/externalized aggression among Chinese adolescents from perspectives of social comparison and the general aggression model. Child Abuse & Neglect, 117(1), Article 105024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105024
39.
HeN.XiangY. (2022). Child maltreatment and nonsuicidal self-injury among Chinese adolescents: The mediating effect of psychological resilience and loneliness. Children and Youth Services Review, 133(1), Article 106335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106335
40.
HolodynskiM. (2009). Milestones and mechanisms of emotional development. In MarkowitschH.Röttger-RösslerB. (Eds.), Emotions as bio-cultural processes. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09546-2_7
41.
HornseyM. J.FaulknerC.CrimstonD.MoretonS. (2018). A microscopic dot on a microscopic dot: Self-esteem buffers the negative effects of exposure to the enormity of the universe. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 76(1), 198–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.02.009
42.
HuangH.NiuL. Y.ZhouC. Y.WuH. M. (2014). Reliability and validity of mobile phone addiction index for Chinese college students. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22(5), 835–838. https://doi.org/10.16128/j.cnki.1005-3611.2014.05.062
43.
JoelS.PlaksJ.MacdonaldG. (2017). Nothing ventured, nothing gained: People anticipate more regret from missed romantic opportunities than from rejection. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(1), 305–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407517729567
44.
KatieA. M.MeganC. G.LeahH. S. (2015). What develops during emotional development? A component process approach to identifying sources of psychopathology risk in adolescence. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 17(4), 403–410. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2015.17.4/kmclaughlin
45.
KimE.KohE. (2018). Avoidant attachment and smartphone addiction in college students: The mediating effects of anxiety and self-esteem. Computers in Human Behavior, 84(1), 264–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.02.037
46.
LearyM. R.SchreindorferL. S.HauptA. L. (1995). The role of low self-esteem in emotional and behavioral problems: Why is low self-esteem dysfunctional?Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14(3), 297–314. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1995.14.3.297
47.
LeungL. (2008). Leisure boredom, sensation seeking, self- esteem, addiction symptoms and patterns of mobile phone use (pp. 359–381). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
48.
LiX.FeiL.ZhangY.NiuY.TongY.YangS. (2011). Development, reliability and validity of the Chinese version of Buss & Perry aggression questionnaire. Chinese Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 37(10), 607–613. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-0152.2011.10.010
49.
LiangY. P.HuangH. T.DingY. M.ZhangY. M. (2022). The relationship between self-esteem and mobile phone addiction among Mainland Chinese adolescents: A meta-analysis. Psychological Reports, 127(1), 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/003329412211091
50.
LinW. H.ChiC. (2020). Adverse adolescence experiences, feeling lonely across life stages and loneliness in adulthood - sciencedirect. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 20(3), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2020.07.006
51.
LiuC.ChenJ. (2019). The curvilinear relationship between paternal and maternal psychological control and adolescents’risk-taking behavior: The moderating effect of adolescents’ self-esteem. Psychological Development and Education, 4(35), 401–410. https://doi.org/10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2019.04.03
52.
LiuZ.SunX.TsydypovL. (2019). Scarcity or luxury: Which leads to adolescent greed? Evidence from a large-scale Chinese adolescent sample. Journal of Adolescence, 77(1), 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.10.00
53.
LongmoreM. A.DemarisA. (1997). Perceived inequity and depression in intimate relationships: The moderating effect of self-esteem. Social Psychology Quarterly, 60(2), 172. https://doi.org/10.2307/2787103
54.
LuG. L.DingY. M.ZhangY. M.HuangH. T.LiangY. P.ChenC. R. (2021). The correlation between mobile phone addiction and coping style among Chinese adolescents: A meta-analysis. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 15(1), 60. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-021-00413-2
55.
MaoY.ZhaoJ.XuY.XiangY. (2020). How gratitude inhibits envy: From the perspective of positive psychology. PsyCh Journal, 10(3), 384–392. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.413
MascoloM. F.GriffinS. (1998). Alternative conceptions of emotional development: Controversy and consensus. In MascoloM. F.GriffinS. (Eds.), What develops in emotional development? (pp. 319–340). Plenum.
MccauleyJ. B.HarrisM. A.ZajicM. C.Swain-LerroL. E.OswaldT.McintyreN.TrzesniewskiK.MundyP.SolomonM. (2017). Self-esteem, internalizing symptoms, and theory of mind in youth with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 48(3), 400–411. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2017.1381912
60.
McCulloughM. E.EmmonsR. A.TsangJ. A. (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual and empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 112–127. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.82.1.112
61.
McLeodS. (2007). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Simply Psychology, 1(1–18).
62.
OrthU. (2017). The lifespan development of self-esteem. In SpechtJ. (Ed.), Personality development across the lifespan (pp. 181–195). Elsevier.
63.
OrthU.RobinsR. W.MeierL. L. (2009). Disentangling the effects of low self-esteem and stressful events on depression: Findings from three longitudinal studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(2), 307–321. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015645
64.
OrthU.RobinsR. W.WidamanK. F. (2012). Life-span development of self-esteem and its effects on important life outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1271–1288. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025558
65.
OrtonyA.CloreG. L.CollinsA. (1988). The cognitive structure of emotions. Contemporary Sociology, 18(6), 2147–2153. https://doi.org/10.2307/2074241
66.
OtteS.StrebJ.RascheK.FrankeI.SegmillerF.NigelS.VasicN.DudeckM. (2019). Self-aggression, reactive aggression, and spontaneous aggression: Mediating effects of self-esteem and psychopathology. Aggressive Behavior, 45(4), 408–416. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21825
67.
PandeyR.TiwariG. K.PariharP.RaiP. K. (2021). Positive, not negative, self-compassion mediates the relationship between self-esteem and well-being. Psychology and psychotherapy, 94(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12259
68.
PengW.LiD.LiD.JiaJ.WangY.SunW. (2019). School disconnectedness and Adolescent Internet Addiction: Mediation by self-esteem and moderation by emotional intelligence. Computers in Human Behavior, 98(1), 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.04.011
69.
PyszczynskiT.GreenbergJ.SolomonS.ArndtJ.SchimelJ. (2004). Why do people need self-esteem? A theoretical and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 435–468. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.435
70.
ReitzA. K.Motti-StefanidiF.AsendorpfJ. B. (2016). Me, us, and them: Testing sociometer theory in a socially diverse real-life context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110(6), 908–920. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000073
71.
RentzschK.Schröder-AbéM.SchützA. (2015). Envy mediates the relation between low academic self-esteem and hostile tendencies. Journal of Research in Personality, 58(1), 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2015.08.001
RosemanI. J. (2001). A model of appraisal in the emotion system: Integrating theory, research, and applications. In SchererK. R.SchorrA.JohnstoneT . (Eds.), Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research (pp. 68–91). Oxford University Press.
RosenbergM. (1979). Conceiving the self. Basic Books.
76.
RossC.OrrE. S.SisicM.ArseneaultJ. M.SimmeringM. G.OrrR. R. (2009). Personality and motivations associated with facebook use. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(2), 578–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.024
77.
SahinN.BasımH. N.CetinF. (2009). Kisilerarası catısma cozme yaklasimlarinda kendilik algısı ve kontrol odagi [Locus of control and self-concept in interpersonal conflict resolution approaches]. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 20(2), 153–163. 19504366
78.
SchererK. R. (2001). Appraisal considered as a process of multilevel sequential checking. In Appraisal processes in emotion theory methods research. Oxford University Press.
79.
SeuntjensT. G.ZeelenbergM.van de VenN.BreugelmansS. M. (2015). Dispositional greed. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(6), 917–933. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000031
80.
ShiotaM. N.KeltnerD.JohnO. P. (2006). Positive emotion dispositions differentially associated with Big Five personality and attachment style. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(2), 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760500510833
81.
SmithR. H.ParrottW. G.DienerE. F.HoyleR. H.KimS. H. (1999). Dispositional envy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(8), 1007–1020. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672992511008
82.
SteigerA. E.AllemandM.RobinsR. W.FendH. A. (2014). Low and decreasing self-esteem during adolescence predict adult depression two decades later. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(2), 325–338. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035133
83.
SturaroC.DenissenJ. J. A.van AkenM. A. G.AsendorpfJ. B. (2008). Person-environment transactions during emerging adulthood. European Psychologist, 13(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.13.1.1
84.
TemcheffC. E.SerbinL. A.Martin-StoreyA.StackD. M.LedinghamJ.SchwartzmanA. E. (2011). Predicting adult physical health outcomes from childhood aggression, social withdrawal and likeability: A 30-year prospective, longitudinal study. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 18(1), 5–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-010-9082-0
85.
TengZ.LiuY.GuoC. (2015). A meta-analysis of the relationship between self-esteem and aggression among Chinese students. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 21(1), 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.01.005
86.
TrzesniewskiK. H.DonnellanM. B.MoffittT. E.RobinsR. W.PoultonR.CaspiA. (2006). Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health, criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects during adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 381–390. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.381
87.
van DijkW. W.Van KoningsbruggenG. M.OuwerkerkJ. W.WesselingY. M. (2011). Self-esteem, self-affirmation, and schadenfreude. Emotion, 11(6), 1445–1449. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026331
VanhalstJ.LuyckxK.ScholteR. H.EngelsR. C.GoossensL. (2013). Low self-esteem as a risk factor for loneliness in adolescence: Perceived - but not actual - social acceptance as an underlying mechanism. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(7), 1067–1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9751-y
90.
von SoestT.LuhmannM.GerstorfD. (2020). The development of loneliness through adolescence and young adulthood: Its nature, correlates, and midlife outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 56(10), 1919–1934. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001102
91.
WangL.XiangY.YuanR. (2021). How is emotional intelligence associated with moral disgust? The mediating role of social support and forgiveness. Current Psychology, 42(12), 10223–10233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02218-0
92.
WangP.ZhaoM.WangX.XieX.WangY.LeiL. (2017). Peer relationship and adolescent smartphone addiction: The mediating role of self-esteem and the moderating role of the need to belong. Journal of behavioral addictions, 6(4), 708–717. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.6.2017.079
93.
WangX.GaoL.YangJ.ZhaoF.WangP. (2020). Parental phubbing and adolescents’depressive symptoms: Self-esteem and perceived social support as moderators. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(2), 427–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01185-x
94.
WangX. F.ZhanY. L.YanL. S. (2016). Reliability and validity test of Chinese version of the guilt and shame proneness scale. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology.
WeidmannR.AthertonO. E.RobinsR. W. (2024). Bidirectional associations between self-esteem and relational aggression from 5th to 11th grade. European Journal of Personality, 38(2), 123–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/08902070221141581
97.
WellsA. E.HunnikinL. M.AshD. P.Van GoozenS. H. M. (2020). Low self-esteem and impairments in emotion recognition predict behavioural problems in children. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 42(4), 693–701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-020-09814-7
98.
WildL. G.FlisherA. J.BhanaA.LombardC. (2004). Associations among adolescent risk behaviours and self-esteem in six domains. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(8), 1454–1467. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00851.x
99.
WuC. H.YaoG. (2008). Psychometric analysis of the short-form UCLA loneliness scale (ULS-8) in Taiwanese undergraduate students. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(8), 1762–1771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.02.003
100.
WuJ.LiH.WuY. (2021). Trait and state: Interoceptive accuracy during anticipation of public speaking in junior secondary shy students from an eastern Province of China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), 4951. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094951
XiaX.WangX.YuH. (2022). Mediating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between leisure experience and aggression. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 9903. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-14125-w
103.
XiangY.ChaoX.YeY. (2018). Effect of gratitude on benign and malicious envy: The mediating role of social support. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9(1), 139. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00139
104.
XiangY.ChenZ.ZhaoJ. (2019). How childhood maltreatment impacts aggression from perspectives of social comparison and resilience framework theory. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 29(9), 1113–1124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2019.1685046
105.
XiangY.WangW.GuanF. (2018). The relationship between child maltreatment and dispositional envy and the mediating effect of self-esteem and social support in young adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(1), 1054. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01054
106.
YaoS.ChenJ.YuX.SangJ. (2016). Mediator roles of interpersonal forgiveness and self-forgiveness between self-esteem and subjective well-being. Current Psychology, 36(3), 585–592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9447-x
107.
YouZ.ZhangY.ZhangL.XuY.ChenX. (2019). How does self-esteem affect mobile phone addiction? The mediating role of social anxiety and interpersonal sensitivity. Psychiatry Research, 271(3-4), 526–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.040
108.
YuB. L.LiJ.LiuW.HuangS. H.CaoX. J. (2022). The effect of left-behind experience and self-esteem on aggressive behavior in young adults in China: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(3-4), 1049–1075. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520922373
109.
Zeigler-HillV. (2011). The connections between self-esteem and psychopathology. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 41(3), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-010-9167-8
110.
ZhangL.WuX. (2011). The Characteristics of attention bias and impulse control on high-school students’ aggressive behavior. Psychological Exploration, 31(2), 128–132.
111.
ZhangL.ZhangS.YangY.LiC. (2017). Attachment orientations and dispositional gratitude: The mediating roles of perceived social support and self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 114(1), 193–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2017.10.006
112.
ZhaoJ.KongF.WangY. (2012). Self-esteem and humor style as mediators of the effects of shyness on loneliness among Chinese college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(6), 686–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.024
113.
ZhaoJ.KongF.WangY. (2013). The role of social support and self-esteem in the relationship between shyness and loneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(5), 577–581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.003
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
