Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality trait whose facets differentially relate to indicators of psychological functioning, such as global self-esteem. There has been some theoretical disagreement whether perfectionism affects global self-esteem, or vice versa. This question merits renewed attention due to increasing efforts to prevent the development of maladaptive perfectionism facets in adolescents. In addition, recent research has indicated a role of self-esteem for predicting personality development. This study aimed to clarify the longitudinal relations of multidimensional perfectionism and global self-esteem. A sample of 707 early adolescents participated in two measurement points two years apart. Global self-esteem positively predicted personal standards, negatively predicted doubts about actions, and did not predict concern over mistakes beyond baseline. Perfectionism facets did not longitudinally predict global self-esteem. These findings provide the first evidence for a role of global self-esteem in perfectionism development. Addressing early adolescents’ self-esteem may aid in preventing the development of maladaptive perfectionism facets.
AdamsonJ.OzencC.BaillieC.TchanturiaK. (2019). Self-esteem group: Useful intervention for inpatients with Anorexia Nervosa?Brain Sciences, 9, 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9010012
2.
AdlerA. (1956). The neurotic disposition. In AnsbacherH. L.AnsbacherR. R. (Eds.), The individual psychology of Alfred Adler (pp. 239–262). New York, NY: Harper.
3.
AppletonP. R.HallH. K.HillA. P. (2010). Family patterns of perfectionism: An examination of elite junior athletes and their parents. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 363-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.04.005
BanduraA. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman.
7.
BaumeisterR. F.TiceD. M.HuttonD. G. (1989). Self-presentational motivations and personality differences in self-esteem. Journal of Personality, 57, 547-579. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb02384.x
8.
BaumeisterR. F.TiceD. M. (1985). Self-esteem and responses to success and failure: Subsequent performance and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality, 53, 450-467. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1985.tb00376.x
9.
BeckA. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical experimental and theoretical aspects. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
10.
BooneL.SoenensB.BraetC. (2011). Perfectionism, body dissatisfaction, and bulimic symptoms: The intervening role of perceived pressure to be thin and thin ideal internalization. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 30(10), 1043-1068. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2011.30.10.1043
11.
CampbellD. T.FiskeD. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81-105. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046016
12.
CoopersmithS. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman.
13.
CurranT.HillA. P.MadiganD. J.StornæsA. V. (2020). A test of social learning and parent socialization perspectives on the development of perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 160, 109925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109925
14.
DamianL. E.Negru-SubtiricaO.PopE. I.StoeberJ. (2021). Becoming a perfectionistic adolescent: Perceived parental behaviors involved in developmental trajectories of perfectionism. European Journal of Personality. MS accepted.
15.
DamianL. E.StoeberJ.Negru-SubtiricaO.BăbanA. (2017). On the development of perfectionism: The longitudinal role of academic achievement and academic efficacy. Journal of Personality, 85(4), 565-577. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12261
16.
DomocusI. M.DamianL. E. (2018). The role of parents and teachers in changing adolescents’ perfectionism: A short-term longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 131, 244-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.05.012
17.
EcclesJ. S.MidgleyC. (1989). Stage/environment fit: Developmentally appropriate classrooms for early adolescents. In AmesR. E.AmesC. (Eds.), Research on motivation ineducation (pp. 139-186). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.
18.
FetvadjievV. H.HeJ. (2019). The longitudinal links of personality traits, values, and well-being and self-esteem: A five-wave study of a nationally representative sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 117(2), 448-464. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000212
19.
FlettG. L.HewittP. L.OliverJ. M.MacdonaldS. (2002). Perfectionism in children and their parents: A developmental analysis. In FlettG. L.HewittP. L. (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 89-132). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
20.
FrostR. O.LahartC. M.RosenblateR. (1991). The development of perfectionism: A study of daughters and their parents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 15, 469-489. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01175730
21.
FrostR. O.MartenP.LahartC.RosenblateR. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449-468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967
22.
GilmanR.AshbyJ. S. (2003). Multidimensional perfectionism in a sample of middle school students: An exploratory investigation. Psychology in the Schools, 40, 670-689. https://doi:10.1002/pits.10125
23.
GilmanR.AshbyJ. S. (2006). Perfectionism. In BearG. G.MinkeK. M. (Eds.), Children’s needs III: Development, prevention, and intervention (pp. 303-312). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
24.
GotwalsJ. K.StoeberJ.DunnJ. G.StollO. (2012). Are perfectionistic strivings in 23 sport adaptive? A systematic review of confirmatory, contradictory, and mixed evidence. Canadian Psychology, 53, 263-279. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030288
GrzegorekJ. L.SlaneyR. B.FranzeS.RiceK. G. (2004). Self-criticism, dependency, self-esteem, and grade point average satisfaction among clusters of perfectionists and nonperfectionists. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(2), 192-200. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.51.2.192
27.
HeathertonT. F.AmbadyN. (1993). Self-esteem, self-prediction, and living up to commitments. In BaumeisterR. F. (Ed.), Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard (pp. 131-145). New York, NY: Plenum.
28.
HeimpelS. A.ElliotA. J.WoodJ. V. (2006). Basic personality dispositions, self-esteem, and personal goals: An approach-avoidance analysis. Journal of Personality, 74(5), 1293-1320. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00410.x
29.
HermanK. C.WangK.TrotterR.ReinkeW. M.IalongoN. (2013). Developmental trajectories of maladaptive perfectionism among African American adolescents. Child Development, 84, 1633-1650. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12078
30.
HewittP. L.FlettG. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conception, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470. https://.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.456
31.
HillA. P. (2014). Perfectionistic strivings and the perils of partialling. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12(4), 302-315. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.919602
32.
HillA. P.CurranT. (2016). Multidimensional perfectionism and burnout: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 20(3), 269-288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868315596286
33.
HongR. Y.LeeS. S.ChngR. Y.ZhouY.TsaiF. F.TanS. H. (2017). Developmental trajectories of maladaptive perfectionism in middle childhood. Journal of Personality, 85, 409-422. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12249
34.
HorneyK. (1950). Neurosis and human growth. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
KusterF.OrthU.MeierL. L. (2012). Rumination mediates the prospective effect of low self-esteem on depression: A five-wave longitudinal study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(6), 747-759. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212437250
37.
LevyP. E.BaumgardnerA. H. (1991). Effects of self-esteem and gender on goal choice. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 12(6), 529-541. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030120606
38.
LoewenthalK. M. (2001). An introduction to psychological tests and scales (2nd ed.). London, England: Psychology Press.
39.
LuoY.WangZ.ZhangH.ChenA.QuanS. (2016). The effect of perfectionism on school burnout among adolescence: The mediator of self-esteem and coping style. Personality and Individual Differences, 88, 202-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.056
MasselinkM.Van RoekelE.OldehinkelA. J. (2018). Self-esteem in early adolescence as predictor of depressive symptoms in late adolescence and early adulthood: The mediating role of motivational and social factors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(5), 932-946. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0727-z
42.
McArdleS.DudaJ. L. (2008). Exploring the etiology of perfectionism and perceptions of self-worth in young athletes. Social Development, 17(4), 980-997. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00456.x
43.
McFarlinD. B.BlascovichJ. (1981). Effects of self-esteem and performance feedback on future affective preferences and cognitive expectations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(3), 521-531. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.40.3.521
44.
MetalskyG. I.JoinerT. E.HardinT. S.AbramsonL. Y. (1993). Depressive reactions to failure in a naturalistic setting: A test of the hopelessness and self-esteem theories of depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102(1), 101-109. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.102.1.101
45.
MorinA. J.MaïanoC.MarshH. W.NagengastB.JanoszM. (2013). School life and adolescents’ self-esteem trajectories. Child Development, 84(6), 1967-1988. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12089
46.
MuthénL. K.MuthénB. O. (1998-2014). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
47.
OkadaR. (2010). A meta-analytic review of the relation between self-esteem level and self-esteem instability. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(2), 243-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.10.012
48.
Olton-WeberS.HessR.RitchotteJ. A. (2020). Reducing levels of perfectionism in gifted and talented youth through a mindfulness intervention. Gifted Child Quarterly, 64, 319-330. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986220953392
49.
O’MaraA. J.MarshH. W.CravenR. G.DebusR. L. (2006). Do self-concept interventions make a difference? A synergistic blend of construct validation and meta-analysis. Educational Psychologist, 41(3), 181-206. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4103_4
50.
OrthU.RobinsR. W. (2013). Understanding the link between low self-esteem and depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(6), 455-460. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413492763
51.
OrthU.RobinsR. W.WidamanK. F.CongerR. D. (2014). Is low self-esteem a risk factor for depression? Findings from a longitudinal study of Mexican-origin youth. Developmental Psychology, 50, 622-633. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033817
52.
OsenkI.WilliamsonP.WadeT. D. (2020). Does perfectionism or pursuit of excellence contribute to successful learning? A meta-analytic review. Psychological Assessment, 32, 972-983. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000942
53.
PodsakoffN. P.WhitingS. W.WelshD. T.MaiK. M. (2013). Surveying for “artifacts”: The susceptibility of the OCB-performance evaluation relationship to common rater, item, and measurement context effects. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 863-874. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032588
54.
RammG.PrenzelM.BaumertJ.BlumW.LehmannR.LeutnerD.SchiefeleU. (Eds.). (2006). PISA 2003: Dokumentation der Erhebungsinstrumente [PISA 2006: Documentation of assessment tools]. Munster: Waxmann.
55.
ReasonerR. W. (1983). Enhancement of self-esteem in children and adolescents. Family & Community Health: The Journal of Health Promotion & Maintenance, 6(2), 51-64. https://doi.org/10.1097/00003727-198306020-00007
56.
RichardsonC. M.RiceK. G.SauerE. M.RobertsK. E. (2019). Client perfectionism and psychological symptoms throughout psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Research, 29(5), 640-651. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2017.1413854
57.
RosenbergM. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
58.
RosenbergM.SchoolerC.SchoenbachC.RosenbergF. (1995). Global self-esteem and specific self-esteem: Different concepts, different outcomes. American Sociological Review, 60, 141-156. https://doi.org/10.2307/2096350
59.
RoskesM.ElliotA. J.De DreuC. K. (2014). Why is avoidance motivation problematic, and what can be done about it?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 133-138. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414524224
60.
SchulerP. A. (2000). Perfectionism and gifted adolescents. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 11, 183-196. https://doi.org/10.4219/jsge-2000-629
61.
SherryS. B.NealisL. J.MacneilM. A.StewartS. H.SherryD. L.SmithM. M. (2013). Informant reports add incrementally to the understanding of the perfectionism–depression connection: Evidence from a prospective longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 957-960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.01.002
62.
ShimS. S.RubensteinL. D.DrapeauC. W. (2016). When perfectionism is coupled with low achievement: The effects on academic engagement and help seeking in middle school. Learning and Individual Differences, 45, 237-244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.12.016
63.
SiroisF. M.MolnarD. S.HirschJ. K. (2017). A meta-analytic and conceptual update on the associations between procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137-159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098
64.
SlaneyR. B.RiceK. G.MobleyM.TrippiJ.AshbyJ. S. (2001). The revised almost perfect scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34, 130-145.
65.
SmithM. M.SherryS. B.RnicK.SaklofskeD. H.EnnsM.GralnickT. (2016). Are perfectionism dimensions vulnerability factors for depressive symptoms after controlling for neuroticism? A meta-analysis of 10 longitudinal studies. European Journal of Personality, 30(2), 201-212. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2053
66.
SmithM. M.SherryS. B.VidovicV.SaklofskeD. H.StoeberJ.BenoitA. (2019). Perfectionism and the five-factor model of personality: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 23(4), 367-390. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868318814973
67.
SoenensB.LuyckxK.VansteenkisteM.LuytenP.DuriezB.GoossensL. (2008). Maladaptive perfectionism as an intervening variable between psychological control and adolescent depressive symptoms: A three-wave longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(3), 465-474. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.465
68.
SoenensB.VansteenkisteM.LuytenP.DuriezB.GoossensL. (2005). Maladaptive perfectionistic self-representations: The mediational link between psychological control and adjustment. Personality and Individual Differences, 38(2), 487-498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.05.008
69.
SorotzkinB. (1985). The quest for perfection: Avoiding guilt or avoiding shame?Psychotherapy, 22, 564-571. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0085541
70.
SteigerA. E.AllemandM.RobinsR. W.FendH. A. (2014). Low and decreasing self-esteem during adolescence predict adult depression two decades later. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(2), 325-338. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035133
StoeberJ. (2018). The psychology of perfectionism: An introduction. In StoeberJ. (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications (pp. 3-16). London, England: Routledge.
73.
StoeberJ.OttoK. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 295-319. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2
74.
StoeberJ.OttoK.DalbertC. (2009). Perfectionism and the Big Five: Conscientiousness predicts longitudinal increases in self-oriented perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(4), 363-368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.04.004
75.
StrickerJ.BueckerS.SchneiderM.PreckelF. (2019). Multidimensional perfectionism and the Big Five personality traits: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Personality, 33, 176-196. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2186
76.
StrickerJ.SchneiderM.PreckelF. (2019). School satisfaction differentially predicts multidimensional perfectionism one year later. Personality and Individual Differences, 143, 30-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.02.014
77.
SuhH.SohnH.KimT.LeeD. G. (2019). A review and meta-analysis of perfectionism interventions: Comparing face-to-face with online modalities. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 66(4), 473-486. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000355
78.
TangT. L. P.ReynoldsD. B. (1993). Effects of self-esteem and perceived goal difficulty on goal setting, certainty, task performance, and attributions. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 4(2), 153-170. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.3920040206
79.
TaylorE. P.CouperR.ButlerC. M. (2017). Adolescent perfectionism: Structural features of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale and correlates with attachment and psychopathology. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 90(4), 686-704. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12133
80.
ThorpeE.NettelbeckT. (2014). Testing if healthy perfectionism enhances academic achievement in Australian secondary school. Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology, 4(2), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.5539/jedp.v4n2p1
81.
TiceD. M. (1991). Esteem protection or enhancement? Self-handicapping motives and attributions differ by trait self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(5), 711-725. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.5.711
82.
TrzesniewskiK. H.DonnellanM. B.MoffittT. E.RobinsR. W.PoultonR.CaspiA. (2006). Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health, criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects during adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 381-390. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.381
83.
Van den AkkerA. L.DekovićM.AsscherJ.PrinzieP. (2014). Mean-level personality development across childhood and adolescence: A temporary defiance of the maturity principle and bidirectional associations with parenting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107, 736-750. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037248
84.
VanhalstJ.LuyckxK.ScholteR. H.EngelsR. C.GoossensL. (2013). Low self-esteem as a risk factor for loneliness in adolescence: Perceived-but not actual-social acceptance as an underlying mechanism. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 1067-1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9751-y
85.
WadeT. D. (2018). Prevention of perfectionism in youth. In StoeberJ. (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications (pp. 265–283). London, England: Routledge.
86.
WeisskirchR. S. (2018). Grit, self-esteem, learning strategies and attitudes and estimated and achieved course grades among college students. Current Psychology, 37, 21-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9485-4
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
