The healthy messages parents convey to their adolescents about risk behaviors may be related to better adolescent outcomes. Few studies have examined the types of messages or strategies caregivers use to discuss dating violence with their early adolescents. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 20 African American maternal caregivers of early adolescent girls. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed, and coded using an emergent process. Themes in dating violence conversations focused on the meaning of love, identifying red flags in relationships, and what to do when involved in a problem dating situation. Caregivers used teachable moments (e.g., watching a TV show) to start conversations, weaved dating violence topics into conversations about other sensitive topics, or included their young daughter in conversations with older siblings. The results of this study highlight strategies that can be implemented in family-based prevention programming and also the importance of helping caregivers communicate their values and expectations.
AckardD. M.Neumark-SztainerD. (2002). Date violence and date rape among adolescents: Associations with disordered eating behaviors and psychological health. Child Abuse & Neglect, 26, 455-473. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00322-8
2.
AkersA. Y.YonasM.BurkeJ.ChangJ. C. (2011). Do you want somebody treating your sister like that? Qualitative exploration of how African American families discuss and promote healthy teen dating relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 2165-2185. doi:10.1177/0886260510383028
3.
Alleyne-GreenB.Coleman-CowgerV. H.HenryD. B. (2012). Dating violence perpetration and/or victimization and associated sexual risk behaviors among a sample of inner-city African American and Hispanic adolescent females. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27, 1457-1473. doi:10.1177/0886260511425788
4.
AustinE. W.JohnsonK. K. (1997). Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third grader’s decision making for alcohol. Health Communication, 9, 323-349. doi:10.1207/s15327027hc0904_3
5.
BanyardV. L.CrossC. (2008). Consequences of teen dating violence: Understanding intervening variables in ecological context. Violence Against Women, 14, 998-1013. doi:10.1177/1077801208322058
6.
BeckettM. K.ElliotM. N.MartinoS.KanouseD. E.CoronaR.KleinD. J.SchusterM. A. (2010). Timing of parent and child communication about sexuality relative to children’s sexual behavior. Pediatrics, 125, 34-42. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-0806
7.
BourisA.Guilamo-RamoV.JaccardJ.BallanM.LesesneC. A.GonzalezB. (2012). Predicting rapid repeat births among Latina adolescents: The role of parents. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 1842-1847. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300578
8.
BradleyE. H.CurryL. A.DeversK. J. (2007). Qualitative data analysis for health services research: Developing taxonomy, themes, and theory. Health Services Research, 42, S1758-S1772. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00684.x
9.
BraunV.ClarkeV. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77-101. doi:10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
10.
BreidingM. J.SmithS. G.BasileK. C.WaltersM. L.ChenJ.MerrickM. T. (2014). Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence, stalking, and intimate partner violence victimzation-National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, United States, 2011. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: Surveillance Summaries, 63, 1-18.
11.
BrendgenM.VitaroF.TremblayR. E.LavoieF. (2001). Reactive and proactive aggression: Predictions to physical violence in different contexts and moderating effects of parental monitoring and caregiving behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 293-304. doi:10.1023/A:1010305828208
12.
CarverK.JoynerK.UdryJ. R. (2003). National estimates of adolescent romantic relationships. In FlorsheimP. (Ed.), Adolescent romantic relationships and sexual behavior: Theory, research, and practical implications (pp. 291-329). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
13.
CharmazK. (2000). Constructivist and objectivist grounded theory. In DenzinN. K.LincolnY. (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 509-535). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
ConnollyJ.FurmanW.KonarskiR. (2000). The role of peers in the emergence of heterosexual romantic relationships in adolescence. Child Development, 71, 1395-1408. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00235
16.
ConnollyJ.McIsaacC. (2011). Romantic relationships in adolescence: In UnderwoodM. K.RosenL. H. (Eds.), Social development: Relationships in infancy, childhood, and adolescence (pp. 180-201). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
17.
Copeland-LinderN.JonesV. C.HaynieD. L.Simons-MortonB. G.WrightJ. L.ChengT. L. (2007). Factors associated with retaliatory attitudes among African American adolescents who have been assaulted. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32, 760-770. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsm007
18.
CoronaR. (2010). Moving beyond the mother-child dyad in prevention planning for Latino families: Dads and siblings matter, too! In LandaleN. S.McHaleS.BoothA. (Eds.), Growing up Hispanic: Health and development of children of immigrants (pp. 150-168). Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
19.
CoronaR.CowgillB. O.BogartL. M.ParraM. T.RyanG.ElliottM. N.. . . SchusterM. A. (2009). A qualitative analysis of discussions about HIV in families of parents with HIV. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 34, 677-680. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsn119
20.
CrouterA. C.WhitemanS. D.McHaleS. M.OsgoodD. W. (2007). Development of gender attitude traditionality across middle childhood and adolescence. Child Development, 78, 911-926. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01040.x
21.
DarlingN.SteinbergL. (1993). Parenting style as context: An integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 486-497.
22.
DenzinN. K.LincolnY. S. (Eds.). (1998). Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
23.
DiIorioC.PluharE.BelcherL. (2003). Parent-child communication about sexuality: A review of the literature from 1980-2002. Journal of HIV/AIDS Prevention & Education for Adolescents & Children, 5, 7-32. doi:10.1300/J129v05n03_02
24.
EastP. L.KhooS. T. (2005). Longitudinal pathways linking family factors and sibling relationship qualities to adolescent substance use and sexual risk behaviors. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 571-580. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.19.4.571
25.
EricksonM. E.GittelmanM. A.DowdD. (2010). Risk factors for dating violence among adolescent females presenting to the pediatric emergency department. The Journal of Trauma, 69, S227-S232. doi:10.1097/TA.0b013e3181f1ec5a
26.
Exner-CortensD.EckenrodeJ.RothmanE. (2013). Longitudinal associations between teen dating violence victimization and adverse health outcomes. Pediatrics, 131, 71-78. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1029
27.
FarrellA. D.ErwinE. H.BettencourtA.MaysS.Vulin-ReynoldsM.SullivanT.. . . MeyerA. L. (2008). Individual factors influencing effective nonviolent behavior and fighting in peer situations: A qualitative study with urban African American adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37, 397-411. doi:10.1080/15374410801955821
28.
FordK.NorrisA. (1991). Urban African-American and Hispanic adolescents and young adults: Who do they talk to about AIDS and condoms? What are they learning?AIDS Education and Prevention, 3, 197-206.
29.
FosheeV. A.McNaughton ReyesH. L.EnnettS. T.CanceJ. D.BaumanK. E.BowlingJ. M. (2012). Assessing the effects of families for safe dates, a family-based teen dating abuse prevention program. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51, 349-356. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.12.029
30.
FriedlanderL. J.ConnollyJ. A.PeplerD. J.CraigW. M. (2013). Extensiveness and persistence of aggressive media exposure as longitudinal risk factors for teen dating violence. Psychology of Violence, 3, 310-322. doi:10.1037/a0032983
31.
HalpernC. T.OslakS. G.YoungM. L.MartinS. L.KupperL. L. (2001). Partner violence among adolescents in opposite-sex romantic relationships: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1679-1685. doi:10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1679
32.
HarryB.SturgesK. M.KlingnerJ. K. (2005). Mapping the process: An exemplar of process and challenge in grounded theory analysis. Educational Researcher, 34, 3-13. doi:10.3102/0013189X034002003
33.
HelmsS. W.SullivanT. N.CoronaR.TaylorK. A. (2013). Adolescents’ recognition of potential positive and negative outcomes in risky dating situations. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28, 3084-3106. doi:10.1177/0886260513488698
34.
HenryR. R.ZeytinogluS. (2012). African Americans and teen dating violence. American Journal of Family Therapy, 40, 20-32. doi:10.1080/01926187.2011.578033
35.
HoltM. K.EspelageD. L. (2005). Social support as a moderator between dating violence victimization and depression/anxiety among African American and Caucasian adolescents. School Psychology Review, 34, 309-328.
36.
HutchinsonM. K.JemmottJ. B.IIIJemmottL. S.BravermanP.FongG. T. (2003). The role of mother-daughter sexual risk communication in reducing sexual risk behaviors among urban adolescent females: A prospective study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 33, 98-107. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(03)00183-6
37.
JaccardJ.DodgeT.DittusP. (2002). Parent-adolescent communication about sex and birth control: A conceptual framework. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 97, 9-42. doi:10.1002/cd.48
38.
JohnsonS. B.FrattaroliS.CampbellJ.WrightJ.Pearson-FieldsA. S.ChengT. L. (2005). “I know what love means.” Gender-based violence in the lives of urban adolescents. Journal of Women’s Health, 14, 172-179. doi:10.1089/jwh.2005.14.172
39.
JonesD. J.ZalotA. A.FosterS. E.SterrettE.ChesterC. (2007). A review of childrearing in African American single mother families: The relevance of a co-parenting framework. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16, 671-683.
40.
KanM. L.McHaleS. M.CrouterA. C. (2008). Parental involvement in adolescent romantic relationships: Patterns and correlates. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 168-179. doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9185-3
KarofskyP. S.ZengL.KosorokM. R. (2001). Relationship between adolescent-parental communication and initiation of first intercourse by adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 28, 41-45. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(00)00156-7
43.
KillorenS. E.RoachA. L. (2014). Sibling conversations about dating and sexuality: Sisters as confidants, sources of support, and mentors. Family Relations, 63, 232-243.
44.
LormandD. K.MarkhamC. M.PeskinM. F.ByrdT. L.AddyR. C.BaumlerE.TortoleroS. R. (2013). Dating violence among urban, minority, middle school youth and associated sexual risk behaviors and substance use. Journal of School Health, 83, 415-421. doi:10.1111/josh.12045
45.
MadsenS. D. (2008). Parents’ management of adolescents’ romantic relationships through dating rules: Gender variations and correlates of relationship qualities. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 1044-1058. doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9313-8
46.
MalikS.SorensonS. B.AneshenselC. S. (1997). Community and dating violence among adolescents: Perpetration and victimization. Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 291-302.
47.
ManganelloJ. A. (2008). Teens, dating violence, and media use: A review of the literature and conceptual model for future research. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 9, 3-18.
48.
MartinoS. C.ElliotM. N.CoronaR. A.KanouseD. E.SchusterM. A. (2007). Beyond the “big talk”: The roles of breadth and repetition in parent-adolescent communication about sexual topics. Pediatrics, 121, 612-618. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2156
49.
McHaleS. M.UpdegraffK. A.WhitemanS. D. (2012). Sibling relationships and influences in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74, 913-930.
50.
MilesM. B.HubermanA. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
51.
MillerS.Gorman-SmithD.SullivanT.OrpinasP.SimonT. R. (2009). Parent and peer predictors of physical dating violence perpetration in early adolescence: Tests of moderation and gender differences. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38, 538-550. doi:10.1080/15374410902976270
52.
MurryV. M.BynumM. S.BrodyG. H.WillertA.StephensD. (2001). African American single mothers and children in context: A review of studies on risk and resilience. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 133-155.
53.
NoonanR. K.CharlesD. (2009). Developing teen dating violence prevention strategies formative research with middle school youth. Violence Against Women, 15, 1087-1105. doi:10.1177/1077801209340761
54.
OrpinasP.HsiehH. L.SongX.HollandK.NahapetyanL. (2013). Trajectories of physical dating violence from middle to high school: Association with relationship quality and acceptability of aggression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 551-565. doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9881-5
55.
O’SullivanL. F.DolezalC.Brackis-CottE.TraegerL.MellinsC. A. (2005). Communication about HIV and risk behaviors among mothers living with HIV and their early adolescent children. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 148-167. doi:10.1177/0272431604274176
56.
PfliegerJ. C.VazsonyiA. T. (2006). Parenting processes and dating violence: The mediating role of self-esteem in low-and high-SES adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 495-512. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.10.002
57.
ReevesP. M.OrpinasP. (2012). Dating norms and dating violence among ninth graders in Northeast Georgia reports from student surveys and focus groups. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27, 1677-1698. doi:10.1177/0886260511430386
58.
RideoutV. J.FoehrU. G.RobertsD. F. (2010). Generation M2: Media in the lives of 8-to 18-year-oldsMenlo Park, CA: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation.
59.
RobinsonT. N.ChangJ. Y.HaydelK. F.KillenJ. D. (2001). Overweight concerns and body dissatisfaction among third-grade children: The impacts of ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Pediatrics, 138, 181-187. doi:10.1067/mpd.2001.110526
60.
RothmanE. F.MillerE.TerpelukA.GlauberA.RandelJ. (2011). The proportion of U.S. parents who talk with their adolescent children about dating abuse. Journal of Adolescent Health, 49, 216-218. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.05.005
61.
SearsH. A.ByersE. S.WhelanJ. J.Saint-PierreM., & The Dating Violence Research Team. (2006). “If it hurts you, then it is not a joke”: Adolescents’ ideas about girls’ and boys’ use and experience of abusive behavior in dating relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 1191-1207. doi:10.1177/0886260506290423
62.
SimonT.MillerS. R.Gorman-SmithD.OrpinasP.SullivanT. (2010). Physical dating violence norms and behavior among sixth-grade students from four U.S. sites. Journal of Early Adolescence, 30, 359-409. doi:10.1177/0272431609333301
63.
SmithA.WinokurK.PalenskiJ. (2005). What is dating violence? An exploratory study of Hispanic adolescent definitions. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 3, 1-20. doi:10.1300/J222v03n01_01
64.
SolomonB. S.BradshawC. P.WrightJ.ChengT. L. (2008). Youth and parental attitudes toward fighting. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 544-560. doi:10.1177/0886260507312947
65.
StraussA.CorbinJ. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. London, England: SAGE.
66.
Suárez-OrozcoC.QinD. B. (2006). Gendered perspectives in psychology: Immigrant origin youth. International Migration Review, 40, 165-198. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2006.00007.x
67.
SullivanT. N.MashoS. W.HelmsS. W.ErwinE. H.FarrellA. D.TaylorK. A. (2012). Individual, peer, and family factors influencing urban African American adolescents’ responses to problem dating situations. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21, 691-704. doi:10.1007/s10826-011-9521-9
68.
TaylorR. D. (2010). Risk and resilience in low-income African American families: Moderating effects of kinship social support. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 344-351. doi:10.1037/a0018675
69.
TharpA. T.BurtonT.FreireK.HallD. M.HarrierS.LatzmanN. E.. . . VagiK. J. (2011). Dating Matters™ Strategies to promote healthy teen relationships. Journal of Women’s Health, 20, 1761-1765.
70.
UpdegraffK. A.Umaña-TaylorA. J. (2010). Structure and process in Mexican-origin families and their implications for youth development. In LandaleN. S.McHaleS.BoothA. (Eds.), Growing up Hispanic: Health and development of children of immigrants (pp. 97-143). Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
71.
VézinaJ.HébertM. (2007). Risk factors for victimization in romantic relationships of young women: A review of empirical studies and implications for prevention. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 8, 33-66.
72.
WadeT. D.DavidsonS.O’DeaJ. A. (2003). A preliminary controlled evaluation of a school-based media literacy program and self-esteem program for reducing eating disorder risk factors. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 33, 371-383. doi:10.1002/eat.10136
73.
WardL. M. (2004). Wading through the stereotypes: Positive and negative associations between media use and black adolescents’ conceptions of self. Developmental Psychology, 40, 284-294. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.284
74.
WilsonE. K.DalberthB. T.KooH. P.GardC. (2010). Parents’ perspectives on talking to preteen age children about sex. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 42, 56-63. doi:10.1363/4205610
75.
WindleM.MrugS. (2009). Cross-gender violence perpetration and victimization among early adolescents and associations with attitudes toward dating conflict. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 429-439.
76.
WolfeD. A.CrooksC. C.ChiodoD.JaffeP. (2009). Child maltreatment, bullying, gender-based harassment, and adolescent dating violence: Making the connections. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 21-24. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.01469.x
