Children with disabilities have been found to be engaged for less time and at lower levels than children without disabilities. The purpose of this study was to examine further the effects of disability as well as age grouping and adult involvement on engagement, with developmental age serving as a covariate. Thirty-two children without disabilities and 16 children with disabilities were observed in four free-play sessions and four sessions with adult involvement. All observations occurred during regularly scheduled classroom activities. Children with disabilities were found to spend less time interactively engaged with adults, attentionally engaged with peers, and in mastery-level engagement with materials than did children without disabilities; they spent more time passively nonengaged. One finding supported mixed-age groups for less attentional engagement with peers among all children when adults were involved, whereas another finding supported same-age groups for less attentional engagement with adults among children with disabilities. Two phenomena previously not reported were discovered. First, there were differences in engagement between children with and children without disabilities, even when controlling for developmental age. Second, at different developmental ages, the qualitative difference between the two groups of children changed. The complex nature of engagement is discussed as it identifies differences associated with disability when controlling for developmental age.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Bailey, D. B., Burchinal, M. R., & McWilliam, R. A. (1993). Age of peers and early child development. Child Development, 64, 848–862.
2.
Bailey, D. B., McWilliam, R. A., Ware, W. B., & Burchinal, M. A. (1993). Social interactions of toddlers and preschoolers in same-age and mixed-age play groups. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14, 261–276.
3.
Blasco, P. M., Bailey, D. B., & Burchinal, M. A. (1993). Dimensions of mastery in same-age and mixed-age integrated classrooms. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 8, 193–206.
4.
Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64, 723–733.
5.
Carroll, J. B. (1985). The model of school learning: Progress of an idea. In C. W. Fisher & D. C. Berliner (Eds.), Perspectives on instructional time (pp. 29–58). White Plains, NY: Longman.
6.
Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (rev. ed.). New York: Academic Press.
7.
Crisp, A. G., & Sturmey, P. (1984). Organizing staff to promote purposeful activity in a setting for mentally handicapped adults: An evaluation of alternative strategies—small groups and room management. Behavioural Psychotherapy, 12, 281–299.
8.
Dunst, C. J., McWilliam, R. A., & Holbert, K. (1986). Assessment of preschool classroom environments. Diagnostique, 11, 212–232.
9.
Frankel, F., & Graham, V. (1976). Systematic observation of classroom behavior of retarded and autistic preschool children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 81, 73–84.
10.
Goldman, J. A. (1981). Social participation of preschool children in same- versus mixed-age groups. Child Development, 52, 644–650.
11.
Guralnick, M. J., & Groom, J. M. (1987). Dyadic peer interactions of mildly delayed and nonhandicapped preschool children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 92, 128–193.
12.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1975). Incidental teaching of language in the preschool. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 411–420.
13.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1978). Promoting productive language through incidental teaching. Education and Urban Society, 10, 407–429.
14.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1980). In vivo language intervention: Unanticipated general effects. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 407–432.
15.
Howes, C., & Farver, J. (1987). Social pretend play in two-year-olds: Effects of age of partners. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 2, 305–314.
16.
Jackson, P. W. (1968). Life in classrooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
17.
Karnes, M. B., Johnson, L. J., & Beauchamp, K. D. F. (1989). Developing problem-solving skills to enhance task persistence of handicapped preschool children. Journal of Early Intervention, 13, (1), 61–72.
18.
Karweit, N. (1985). Time scales, learning events, and productive instruction. In C. W. Fisher & D. C. Berliner (Eds.), Perspective on instructional time (pp. 169–188). White Plains, NY: Longman.
19.
Krakow, J. B., & Kopp, C. B. (1983). The effects of developmental delay on sustained attention in young children. Child Development, 54, 1143–1155.
20.
Krantz, P. J., & Risley, T. R. (1977). Behavioral ecology in the classroom. In K. D. O'Leary & S. G. O'Leary (Eds.), Classroom management: The successful use of behavior modification (2nd ed., pp. 349–367). New York: Pergamon.
21.
McWilliam, R. A., & Bailey, D. B. (1992). Promoting engagement and mastery. In D. B. Bailey & M. Wolery (Eds.), Teaching infants and preschoolers with disabilities (2nd ed., pp. 229–256). New York: Merrill.
22.
McWilliam, R. A., Trivette, C. M., & Dunst, C. J. (1985). Behavior engagement as a measure of the efficacy of early intervention. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 5, 33–45.
23.
McWilliam, R. A., & Ware, W. B. (1994). The reliability of observations of young children's engagement: An application of generalizability theory. Journal of Early Intervention, 18, 34–47.
24.
Mercer, J. R., & Denti, L. (1989). Obstacles to integrating disabled students in a "two-roof" elementary school. Exceptional Children, 56, 30–39.
25.
Montes, F., & Risley, T. R. (1975). Evaluating traditional day care practices: An empirical approach. Child Care Quarterly, 4, 208–215.
26.
Morrison, H. C. (1926). The practice of teaching in the secondary school. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
27.
Newborg, J., Stock, J. R., Wnek, L., Guidubaldi, J., & Svinicki, J. (1984). The Battelle Developmental Inventory. Allen, TX: DLM/Teaching Resources.
28.
Olson, W. C. (1931). A study of classroom behavior. Journal of Educational Psychology, 22, 449–454.
29.
Ottenbacher, K. J. (1992). Practical significance in early intervention research: From affect to empirical effect. Journal of Early Intervention, 16, 181–193.
30.
Parten, M. B. (1932). Social participation among preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 27, 243–269.
31.
Peck, C. A., Hayden, L., Wandschneider, M., Peterson, K., & Richarz, S. (1989). Development of integrated preschools: A qualitative inquiry into sources of resistance among parents, administrators, and teachers. Journal of Early Intervention, 13, 353–363.
32.
Quiltich, H. R., Christopherson, E. R., & Risley, T. R. (1977). The evaluation of children's play materials. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 501–502.
33.
Risley, T. R. (1986). Behavioral engagement as a fundamental variable in treatment quality. Paper presented at the Twelfth Annual Convention of the Association for Behavior Analysis, Milwaukee, WI.
34.
Roberts, J. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Bailey, D. B. (1994). Communication among preschoolers with and without disabilities in same-age and mixed-age classes. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 99, 231–249.
35.
Rossmiller, R. A. (1982, September). Managing school resources to improve student achievement. Paper presented at the state superintendent conference for district administrators, Madison, WI.
36.
Sparling, J., & Lewis, I. (1979). Learningames for the first three years: A guide to parent/child play. New York: Walker.
37.
Sparling, J., & Lewis, I. (1984). Learningames for threes and fours. New York: Berkley Books.
38.
Symonds, P. M. (1926). Study habits of high school pupils shown by close observation of controlled groups. Teachers College Record, 27, 713–724.
39.
Twardosz, S., Cataldo, M. F., & Risley, T. R. (1974). Open environment design for infant and toddler day care. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 529–546.
