Families are as diverse as the individuals within them. This article explores the many facets of the contemporary family in the United States, including how families are defined and the variation among families on dimensions such as structure, size, and ethnic and linguistic characteristics. Further, the impact of sociohistorical factors, such as poverty, are discussed in terms of their influence on family functioning and life-style. The implications of models of child development also are examined and policy recommendations are considered in light of these diverse family characteristics and family needs.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Bailey, D.B., Simeonsson, R.J., Winton, P.J., Huntington, G.S., Comfort, M., Isbell, P., O'Donnell, P., & Helm, J.M. (1986). Family-focused intervention: A functional model for planning, implementing, and evaluating individualized family services in early intervention. Journal of the Division for Early Childhood, 10, 156–171.
2.
Blankenhorn, D. (1990). American family dilemmas. In D. Blankenhorn, S. Bayme, & J.B. Elshtain (Eds.), Rebuilding the nest: A new commitment to the American family (pp. 3–25). Milwaukee, WI: Family Service America.
3.
Blankenhorn, D., Bayme, S., & Elshtain, J.B. (Eds.). (1990). Rebuilding the nest: A new commitment to the American family.Milwaukee, WI: Family Service America.
4.
Breitmayer, B., & Ramey, C. (1986). Biological nonoptimality and quality of postnatal environment as codeterminants of intellectual development. Child Development, 57, 1151–1165.
5.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1990). Discovering what families do. In D. Blankenhorn, S. Bayme, & J.B. Elshtain (Eds.), Rebuilding the nest: A new commitment to the American family (pp. 27–38). Milwaukee, WI: Family Service America.
6.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (1988). Marital and family characteristics of the labor force: March 1988. Unpublished data, United States Department of Labor, Washington, DC.
7.
Cegelka, P.T. (1988). Multicultural considerations. In E.W. Lynch & R.B. Lewis (Eds.), Exceptional children and adults (pp. 545–587). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
8.
Chan, S. (1986). Parents of exceptional Asian children. In M.K. Kitano & P.C. Chinn (Eds.), Exceptional Asian children and youth (pp. 36–53). Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
9.
Chan, S. (1992). Families with Asian roots. In E.W. Lynch & M.J. Hanson (Eds.), Developing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children and their families (pp. 181–258). Baltimore: Brookes.
10.
Children's Defense Fund. (1989). A vision for America's future.Washington, DC: Author.
11.
Children's Defense Fund. (1991). The state of America's children 1991.Washington, DC: Author.
Dawson, D.A. (1991). Family structure and children's health and well-being: Data from the 1988 national health interview survey on child health. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 573–584.
14.
Dunst, C. (1985). Rethinking early intervention. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 5, 165–201.
15.
Dunst, C., Trivette, C., & Deal, A. (1988). Enabling and empowering families.Cambridge, MA: Brookline.
16.
Gorski, P.A. (1984). Infants at risk. In M.J. Hanson (Ed.), Atypical infant development (pp. 57–80). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
17.
Hanson, M.J. (1990). Final report: California early intervention personnel model, personnel standards, and personnel preparation plan.San Francisco: Department of Special Education, San Francisco State University. (Available from Ben Travaso, Department of Developmental Services, PO Box 944202, Sacramento, CA 94244--2020)
18.
Hanson, M.J. (1992). Families with Anglo-European roots. In E.W. Lynch & M.J. Hanson (Eds.), Developing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children and their families (pp. 65–83). Baltimore: Brookes.
19.
Hanson, M.J., & Lovett, D. (in press). Personnel preparation for early interventionists: A cross-disciplinary survey. Journal of Early Intervention.
20.
Hanson, M.J., Lynch, E.W., & Wayman, K.I. (1990). Honoring the cultural diversity of families when gathering data. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 10(1), 112–131.
21.
Hayes, C.D., Palmer, J.L., & Zaslow, M.J. (1990). Who cares for America's children? Child care policy for the 1990s.Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
22.
Hobbs, N. (1975). The futures of children.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
23.
Kaiser, A.P., & Hemmeter, M.L. (1989). Value-based approaches to family intervention. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 8(4), 72–86.
24.
Kaplan-Sanoff, M., Parker, S., & Zuckerman, B. (1991). Poverty and early childhood development: What do we know, and what should we do?Infants and Young Children, 4(1), 68–76.
25.
Levitan, S.A., Belous, R.S., & Gallo, F. (1988). What's happening to the American family? Tensions, hopes, and realities (rev. ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
26.
Lewis, M. (1990, March 2). Asians booming in census. San Jose Mercury News, p. 1A.
27.
Lubchenco, L.O. (1981). Gestational age, birth weight, and the high-risk infant. In C.C. Brown (Ed.), Infants at risk: Assessment and intervention (pp. 12–18). Piscataway, NJ: Johnson & Johnson.
28.
Lynch, E.W. (1992). From culture shock to cultural learning. In E.W. Lynch & M.J. Hanson (Eds.), Developing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children and their families (pp. 19–34). Baltimore: Brookes.
29.
Lynch, E.W., & Bakley, S. (1989). Serving young children whose parents are mentally retarded. Infants and Young Children, 1(3), 26–38.
30.
Lynch, E.W., & Hanson, M.J. (Eds.). (1992). Developing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children and their families.Baltimore: Brookes.
Milburn, N., & D'Ercole, A. (1991). Homeless women. American Psychologist, 46, 1161–1169.
33.
Mintz, S., & Kellogg, S. (1988). Domestic revolutions: A social history of American family life.New York: Free Press.
34.
Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
35.
Molnar, J. (1988). Home is where the heart is: The crisis of homeless children and families in New York City.New York: Bank Street College of Education.
36.
National Coalition of Advocates for Students. (1985). Barriers to excellence: Our children at risk.Boston: Author.
37.
Nguyen, D.Q. (1989). An overview of Southeast Asian culture. Coalition Quarterly, 6(2,3), 10–11.
38.
Olson, D.H., McCubbin, H.I., Barnes, H., Larsen, A., Muxen, M., & Wilson, M. (1983). Families: What makes them work.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
39.
Patterson, G.R. (1983). Stress: A change agent for family process. In N. Garmezy & M. Rutter (Eds.), Stress, coping and development in children (pp. 235–264). New York: McGraw-Hill.
40.
Popenoe, D. (1990). Family decline in America. In D. Blankenhorn, S. Bayme, & J.B. Elshtain (Eds.), Rebuilding the nest: A new commitment to the American family (pp. 39–51). Milwaukee, WI: Family Service America.
41.
Population Research Unit, California State Department of Finance. (1988). Race/ ethnic projections Report 88 P-4. (Available from California Department of Finance, Population Research Unit, 915 L St., Sacramento, CA 95814)
42.
Poulsen, M.K. (1987, October). Perinatal substance abuse: Children's issues. Paper presented at the Council on Perinatal Substance Abuse of Los Angeles Conference on Lost Generations: Mothers and Children on Drugs, Los Angeles.
43.
Rafferty, Y., & Shinn, M. (1991). The impact of homelessness on children. American Psychologist, 46, 1170–1179.
44.
Randall-David, E. (1989). Strategies for working with culturally diverse communities and clients.Washington, DC: Association for the Care of Children's Health.
45.
Research and Policy Committee of the Committee for Economic Development. (1987). Children in need: Investment strategies for the educationally disadvantaged.New York: Committee for Economic Development.
Rosenbaum, S., Layton, C., & Liu, J. (1991). The health of America's children.Washington, DC: Children's Defense Fund.
48.
Sameroff, A.J., & Chandler, M.J. (1975). Reproductive risk and the continuum of caretaking casualty. In F.D. Horowitz (Ed.), Review of child development research (Vol. 4, pp. 187–244). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
49.
Schwartz, S.F., Horowitz, F.D., & Mitchell, D.W. (1985). A comparison of the behaviors of preterm and full-term infants: Implications for mother-infant interaction. In S. Harel & N.J. Anastasiow (Eds.), The at-risk infant: Psycho/ socio/medical aspects (pp. 87–93). Baltimore: Brookes.
50.
Sharifzadeh, S. (1992). Families with Middle Eastern roots. In E.W. Lynch & M.J. Hanson (Eds.), Developing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children and their families (pp. 319–351). Baltimore: Brookes.
51.
Siegel, L.S. (1985). Biological and environmental variables as predictors of intellectual functioning at 6 years of age. In S. Harel & N.J. Anastasiow (Eds.), The at-risk infant: Psycho/socio/medical aspects (pp. 65–73). Baltimore: Brookes.
52.
Summers, J.A., Brotherson, M.J., & Turnbull, A.P. (1988). The impact of handicapped children on families. In E.W. Lynch & R.B. Lewis (Eds.), Exceptional children and adults (pp. 504–544). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
53.
Turnbull, A.P., & Turnbull, H.R., III. (1990). Families, professionals, and exceptionality: A special partnership (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.
54.
United States General Accounting Office. (1990). Asian Americans: A status report.Washington, DC: Author.
55.
Wayman, K.I., Lynch, E.W., & Hanson, M.J. (1991). Home-based early childhood services: Cultural sensitivity in a family systems approach. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 10(4), 56–75.
56.
Werner, E.E. (1990). Protective factors and individual resilience. In S.J. Meisels & J.P. Shonkoff (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (pp. 97–116). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
57.
Werner, E.E., Bierman, J.M., & French, F.E. (1971). The children of Kauai: A longitudinal study from the prenatal period to age ten.Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
58.
Werner, E.E., & Smith, R.S. (1977). Kauai's children come of age.Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
59.
Werner, E.E., & Smith, R.S. (1989). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth.New York: Adams Bannister Cox.
60.
Weston, D.R., Ivins, B., Zuckerman, B., Jones, C., & Lopez, R. (1989). Drug exposed babies: Research and clinical issues. Zero to Three, IX(5), 1–7.
61.
Whitman, B., Accardo, P., Boyert, M., & Kendagor, R. (1990). Homelessness and cognitive performance in children: A possible link. Social Work, 35, 516–519.
62.
Willis, W. (1992). Families with African American roots. In E.W. Lynch & M.J. Hanson (Eds.), Developing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children and their families (pp. 121–150). Baltimore: Brookes.
63.
Yogman, M.W., & Brazelton, T.B. (Eds.). (1986). In support of families.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
64.
Zigler, E.F., & Gilman, E.P. (1990). An agenda for the 1990s: Supporting families. In D. Blankenhorn, S. Bayme, & J.B. Elshtain (Eds.), Rebuilding the nest: A new commitment to the American family (pp. 237–250). Milwaukee, WI: Family Service America.
65.
Zuniga, M. (1992). Families with Latino roots. In E.W. Lynch & M.J. Hanson (Eds.), Developing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children and their families (pp. 151–179). Baltimore: Brookes.
