This conceptual article reviews current research on racial disparities in disciplinary practices in early childhood education and work to address these issues within a positive behavior support (PBS) framework. Building largely on the Pyramid Model, recommendations and a culturally responsive approach are suggested for use within a program-wide PBS framework in early childhood settings. Future directions are discussed to guide efforts toward reducing disparate racial discipline practices in early childhood programs.
BanerjeeR.LucknerJ. (2014). Training needs of early childhood professionals who work with children and families who are culturally and linguistically diverse. Infants & Young Children, 27, 43–59.
2.
BanksR. R.EberhardtJ. L.RossL. (2006). Discrimination and implicit bias in a racially unequal society. California Law Review, 94, 1169–1190.
3.
BartonE. E.SteedE. A.StrainP.DunlapG.PowellD.PayneC. (2014). An analysis of classroom-based and parent-focused social emotional programs for young children. Infants & Young Children, 27, 3–29.
4.
BenedictE. A.HornerR. H.SquiresJ. K. (2007). Assessment and implementation of positive behavior support in preschools. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27, 174–192.
5.
BradshawC. P.MitchellM. M.O’BrennanL. M.LeafP. J. (2010). Multilevel exploration of factors contributing to the overrepresentation of Black students in office disciplinary referrals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 508–520.
6.
BransonD.DemchakM. (2010). Toddler teachers’ use of teaching Pyramid practices. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 30, 196–208.
7.
CartledgeG.SinghA.GibsonL. (2008). Practical behavior-management techniques to close the accessibility gap for students who are culturally and linguistically diverse. Preventing School Failure, 52, 29–38.
8.
Children’s Defense Fund. (1975). School suspensions: Are they helping children?Cambridge, MA: Washington Research Project.
9.
CostenbaderV.MarksonS. (1998). School suspension: A study with secondary students. Journal of School Psychology, 36, 59–82.
10.
DebnamK. J.PasE. T.BottianiJ.CashA. H.BradshawC. P. (2015). A examination of the association between observed and self-reported culturally proficient teaching practices. Psychology in the Schools, 52, 533–548.
11.
DunlapG.FoxL. (2015). The Pyramid Model: PBS in early childhood programs and its relation to school-wide PBS. Available from www.pyramidmodel.org
12.
DunlapG.WilsonK.StrainP.LeeJ. (2013). Prevent-teach-reinforce: The early childhood model of individualized positive behavior support. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.
13.
FallonL. M.O’KeeffeB. V.SugaiG. (2012). Consideration of culture and context in school- wide positive behavior support: A review of current literature. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14, 209–219.
14.
FoxL.HemmeterM. L. (2009). A program-wide model for supporting social emotional development and addressing challenging behavior in early childhood setting. In SailorW.DunlapG.SugaiG.HornerR. (Eds.), Handbook of positive behavior support (pp. 177–202). New York, NY: Springer.
15.
FoxL.HemmeterM. L. (2014). Implementing positive behavioral intervention and support: The evidence base of the Pyramid Model for supporting social emotional competence in infants and young children. Pyramid Model Consortium. Retrieved from http://www.pyramidmodel.org/pyramid-model-research.html
16.
FoxL.HemmeterM. L.SnyderP. (2014). Teaching Pyramid Observation Tool (TPOT) for preschool classrooms, Research edition. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
17.
FoxL.VeguillaM.BinderD. P. (2014). Data decision-making and program- wide implementation of the Pyramid Model (Roadmap to effective intervention practices #7). Tampa: Technical Assistance Center on Social Emotional Intervention for Young Children, University of South Florida.
18.
FreyA. J.ParkK. L.Browne-FerrignoT.KorfhageT. L. (2010). The social validity of program-wide positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12, 222–235.
19.
FullertonE. K.ConroyM. A.CorreaV. I. (2009). Early childhood teachers’ use of specific praise statements with young children at risk for behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 34, 118–135.
20.
GayG. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
21.
GilliamW. S. (2005). Prekindergarteners left behind: Expulsion rates in state prekindergarten programs. New York, NY: Foundation for Child Development.
22.
GreflundS.McIntoshK.MercerS. H.MayS. L. (2014). Examining disproportionality in school discipline for aboriginal students in schools implementing PBIS. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 29, 213–235.
23.
GrinerA. C.StewartM. L. (2013). Addressing the achievement gap and disproportionality through the use of culturally responsive teaching practices. Urban Education, 48, 585–621.
24.
HarryB.KlingerJ. (2006). Why are so many minority students in special education? Understanding disability and race in schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
25.
HemmeterM. L.FoxL.JackS.BroylesL. (2007). A program-wide model of positive behavior support in early childhood settings. Journal of Early Intervention, 29, 337–355.
26.
HemmeterM. L.OstroskyM.FoxL. (2006). Social and emotional foundations for early learning: A conceptual model for intervention. School Psychology Review, 35, 583–601.
27.
HemmeterM. L.SantosR. M.OstroskyM. M. (2008). Preparing early childhood educators to address young children’s social-emotional development and challenging behavior: A survey of higher education programs in nine states. Journal of Early Intervention, 30, 321–340.
28.
HershfeldtP.SechrestR.PellK.RosenbergM.BradshawC. P.LeafP. J. (2009). Double-Check: A process of cultural responsiveness applied to classroom behavior. Teaching Exceptional Children PLUS, 6, 2–18.
29.
KalyanpurM.HarryB. (1997). A posture of reciprocity: A practical approach to collaboration between professionals and parents of culturally diverse backgrounds. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 6, 487–509.
30.
MarkeyU.MarkeyD. J.QuantB.SantelliB.TurnbullA. (2002). Operation positive change: PBS in an urban context. Journal of Positive Interventions, 4, 218–230.
31.
McIntoshK.BarnesA.EliasonB.MorrisK. (2014). Using discipline data within SWPBIS to identify and address disproportionality: A guide for school teams. OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. Available from www.pbis.org
32.
McIntoshK.GirvanE. J.HornerR. H.SmolkowskiK. (2014). Education not incarceration: A conceptual model for reducing racial and ethnic disproportionality in school discipline. Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk, 5, Article 4.
33.
McIntoshK.MonizC.CraftC. B.GolbyR.Steinwand-DeschambeaultT. (2014). Implementing school-wide positive behavioural interventions and supports to better meet the needs of indigenous students. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 29, 236–257.
34.
MilnerR. (2011). Culturally relevant pedagogy in a diverse urban classroom. Urban Review, 43, 66–89.
35.
MojeE. B.HinchmanK. (2004). Culturally responsive practices for youth literacy learning. Adolescent Literacy Research and Practice, 4, 321–350.
36.
MonroeC. R. (2005). Why are “bad boys” always black? Causes of disproportionality in school discipline and recommendations for change. The Clearing House, 79, 45–50.
37.
MonroeC. R. (2009). Teachers closing the discipline gap in an urban middle school. Urban Education, 44, 322–347.
38.
National Research Council. (2001). Eager to learn: Educating our preschoolers. In BowmanB. T.DonovanM. S.BurnsM. S. (Eds.), Committee on early childhood pedagogy, commission on behavioral and social sciences and education (p. 7). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
39.
NietoS. (2000). Placing equity front and center: Some thoughts on transforming teacher education for a new century. Journal of Teacher Education, 51, 180–187.
40.
OlivosE. M.GallagherR. J.AguilarJ. (2010). Fostering collaboration with culturally and linguistically diverse families of children with moderate to severe disabilities. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 20, 28–40.
41.
PiantaR. C.SteinbergM.RollinsK. (1995). The first two years of school: Teacher child relationships and deflections in children’s classroom adjustment. Developmental and Psychopathology, 7, 295–312.
42.
RashidH. M. (2009). From brilliant baby to child at risk: The perilous path of African American boys in early childhood education. The Journal of Negro Education, 78, 347–358.
43.
RauschM. K.SkibaR. (2004). Disproportionality in school discipline among minority students in Indiana: Description and analysis. Children Left Behind Policy Briefs. Supplementary Analysis 2-A. Bloomington: Center for Evaluation and Education Policy, Indiana University.
44.
RiveraB. D.Rodgers-AdkinsonD. (1997). Culturally responsive interventions: Social skills training with children and parents from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Interventions in School and Clinic, 33, 75–81.
45.
RudmanL. A.AshmoreR. D.GrayM. L. (2001). “Unlearning” automatic biases: The malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 856–868.
46.
SaftE. W.PiantaR. C. (2001). Teachers’ perceptions of their relationships with students: Effects of child age, gender, and ethnicity of teachers and children. School Psychology Quarterly, 16, 125–141.
47.
SkibaR. J.MichaelR. S.NardoA. C.PetersonR. L. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34, 317–342.
48.
SkrlaL.ScheurickJ. J.GarciaJ.NollyG. (2004). Equity audits: A practical leadership tool for developing equitable and excellent schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 40, 133–161.
49.
SmithS. C.LewisT. J.StormontM. (2010). The effectiveness of two universal behavioral supports for children with externalizing behavior in Head Start classrooms. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 13, 133–143.
50.
SnyderP. A.HemmeterM. L.FoxL. (2015). Supporting implementation of evidence-based practices through practice-based coaching. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 35, 133–143.
51.
SteedE. A.PomerleauT. (2012). Preschool-wide evaluation tool: Research edition. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
52.
SteedE. A.PomerleauT.MuscottH.RohdeL. (2013). Program-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports in rural preschools. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 32, 38–46.
53.
StormontM.LewisT. J.BecknerR. (2005). Positive behavior support systems: Applying key features in preschool settings. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37, 42–49.
54.
SugaiG.HornerR. (2006). A promising approach for expanding and sustaining school wide positive behavior support. School Psychology Review, 35, 246–259.
55.
SugaiG.HornerR. H.DunlapG.HienemanM.LewisT. J.NelsonC. M.. . . RuefM. (2000). Applying positive behavior support and functional behavioral assessment in schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2, 131–143.
56.
ThomasT. N. (1995). Acculturative stress in the adjustment of immigrant families. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 4, 131–142.
57.
TogutT. D. (2011). The gestalt of the school-to-prison pipeline: The duality of overrepresentation of minorities in special education and racial disparity in school discipline of minorities. The American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law, 20, 163–181.
58.
U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights. (2014). Civil rights data collection data snapshot: School discipline. Available from www.ocrdata.edu.gov
59.
U.S. Departments of Health and Human Services and Education. (2015). Policy statement on expulsion and suspension policies in early childhood settings. Washington, DC: Author.
60.
UtleyC. A.KozleskiE.SmithA.DraperI. L. (2002). Positive behavior support: A proactive strategy for minimizing behavior problems in urban multicultural youth. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4, 196–207
61.
VincentC. G.RandallC.CartledgeG.TobinT. J.Swain-BradwayJ. (2011). Toward a conceptual integration of cultural responsiveness and schoolwide positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 13, 219–229.
62.
VincentC. G.Swain-BradwayJ.TobinT. J.MayS. (2011). Disciplinary referrals for culturally and linguistically diverse students with and without disabilities: Patterns resulting from school-wide positive behavior support. Special issue of Exceptionality, 19, 175–190.
63.
VincentC. G.TobinT. J. (2011). The relationship between implementation of school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBIS) and disciplinary exclusion of students from various ethnic backgrounds with and without disabilities. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 19, 217–232.
64.
WeinsteinC. S.Tomlinson-ClarkeS.CurranM. (2004). Toward a conception of culturally responsive classroom management. Journal of Teacher Education, 55, 25–38.
65.
WeissS. J.GoebelP.PageA.WilsonP.WardaM. (1999). The impact of cultural and familial context on behavioral and emotional problems of preschool Latino children. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 29, 287–301.
