Decisions about the use of psychotropic medication in pregnancy are an ongoing challenge for clinicians and women with mental health problems, owing to the uncertainties around risks of the illness itself to mother and fetus/infant, effectiveness of medications in pregnancy and risks to the fetus/infant from in utero exposure or via breast milk. These consensus guidelines aim to provide pragmatic advice regarding these issues. They are divided into sections on risks of untreated illness in pregnancy; general principles of using drugs in the perinatal period; benefits and harms associated with individual drugs; and recommendations for the management of specific disorders.
AbelELHanniganJH (1995) Maternal risk factors in fetal alcohol syndrome: Provocative and permissive influences. Neurotoxicol Teratol17: 445–462.
2.
AbelKMHowardLM (2014) Schizophrenia, psychopharmacology and pregnancy. In:
GalballyM (eds) Psychopharmacology and pregnancy. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp.119–138.
3.
AckermanJPRigginsTBlackMM (2010) A review of the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure among school-aged children. Pediatrics125: 554–565.
4.
AkashehGSiratiLNoshad KamranAR. (2014) Comparison of the effect of sertraline with behavioral therapy on semen parameters in men with primary premature ejaculation. Urology83: 800–804.
5.
AlderJFinkNBitzerJ. (2007) Depression and anxiety during pregnancy: A risk factor for obstetric, fetal and neonatal outcome? A critical review of the literature. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med20: 189–209.
6.
AlwanSReefhuisJBottoLD. (2010) Maternal use of bupropion and risk for congenital heart defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol203: 52–56.
7.
AndersonELRetiIM (2009) ECT in pregnancy: A review of the literature from 1941 to 2007. Psychosom Med71: 235–242.
8.
BaldwinDSAndersonIMNuttDJ. (2014) Evidence-based pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder: A revision of the 2005 guidelines from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol28: 403–439.
9.
BanLFlemingKMDoyleP. (2015) Congenital anomalies in children of mothers taking antiepileptic drugs with and without periconceptional high dose folic acid use: A population-based cohort study. PLoS One10: e0131130.
10.
BanLWestJGibsonJE. (2014) First trimester exposure to anxiolytic and hypnotic drugs and the risks of major congenital anomalies: A United Kingdom population-based cohort study. PLoS One9: e100996.
11.
BatemanBTPatornoEDesaiRJ. (2016) Late pregnancy beta blocker exposure and risks of neonatal hypoglycemia and bradycardia. Pediatrics138: pii: e20160731.
12.
BC Reproductive Mental Health Programme and Perinatal Services BC (2014) Best practice guidelines for mental health disorders in the perinatal period. Vancouver, BC: BC Reproductive Mental Health.
13.
BechBHKjaersgaardMIPedersenHS. (2014) Use of antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy and risk of spontaneous abortion and stillbirth: Population based cohort study. Brit Med J349: g5159.
14.
BennedsenBEMortensenPBOlesenAV. (1999) Preterm birth and intra-uterine growth retardation among children of women with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry175: 239–245.
15.
BennedsenBEMortensenPBOlesenAV. (2001) Congenital malformations, stillbirths, and infant deaths among children of women with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry58: 674–679.
16.
BerardAZhaoJPSheehyO (2016) Success of smoking cessation interventions during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol215: 611.
17.
BergmanKSarkarPO’ConnorTG. (2007) Maternal stress during pregnancy predicts cognitive ability and fearfulness in infancy. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry46: 1454–1463.
18.
BerleJOSpigsetO (2011) Antidepressant use during breastfeeding. Curr Womens Health Rev7: 28–34.
19.
BesagFM (2014) ADHD treatment and pregnancy. Drug Saf37: 397–408.
20.
BlaisMABeckerAEBurwellRA. (2000) Pregnancy: Outcome and impact on symptomatology in a cohort of eating-disordered women. Int J Eat Disord27: 140–149.
21.
BodenRLundgrenMBrandtL. (2012a) Risks of adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes in women treated or not treated with mood stabilisers for bipolar disorder: Population based cohort study. Brit Med J345: e7085.
22.
BodenRLundgrenMBrandtL. (2012b) Antipsychotics during pregnancy: Relation to fetal and maternal metabolic effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry69: 715–721.
23.
BodenRLundgrenMBrandtL. (2012c) Antipsychotics during pregnancy: Relation to fetal and maternal metabolic effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry69: 715–721.
24.
BogenDLSitDGenoveseA. (2012) Three cases of lithium exposure and exclusive breastfeeding. Arch Womens Ment Health15: 69–72.
25.
Bolea-AlamanacBMGreenAVermaG. (2014) Methylphenidate use in pregnancy and lactation: A systematic review of evidence. Br J Clin Pharmacol77: 96–101.
26.
BoukhrisTSheehyOMottronL. (2016) Antidepressant use during pregnancy and the risk of autism spectrum disorder in children. JAMA Pediatr170: 117–124.
27.
BoyleBGarneELoaneM. (2016) The changing epidemiology of Ebstein’s anomaly and its relationship with maternal mental health conditions: A European registry-based study. Cardiol Young [Epub ahead of print 30 August 2016].
28.
BradleyRSladeP (2011) A review of mental health problems in fathers following the birth of a child. J Reprod Infant Psychol29: 19–42.
29.
BriceljV (1999) Use of adrenergic beta-blockers in pregnancy. Heart Views1: 130–132.
30.
BroSPKjaersgaardMIParnerET. (2015) Adverse pregnancy outcomes after exposure to methylphenidate or atomoxetine during pregnancy. Clin Epidemiol7: 139–147.
31.
BromleyRWestonJAdabN. (2014) Treatment for epilepsy in pregnancy: Neurodevelopmental outcomes in the child. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Issue 10. Article No.: CD010236.
32.
BruningAHHellerHMKievietN. (2015) Antidepressants during pregnancy and postpartum hemorrhage: A systematic review. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol189: 38–47.
33.
BruntonRJDryerRSalibaA. (2015) Pregnancy anxiety: A systematic review of current scales. J Affect Disord176: 24–34.
34.
BulikCMHoffmanERVonHA. (2010) Unplanned pregnancy in women with anorexia nervosa. Obstet Gynecol116: 1136–1140.
35.
BulikCMVonHAHamerR. (2007) Patterns of remission, continuation and incidence of broadly defined eating disorders during early pregnancy in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). Psychol Med37: 1109–1118.
36.
BurkeL (2003) The impact of maternal depression on familial relationships. Int Rev Psychiatry15: 243–255.
37.
BurnsLMattickRPLimK. (2007) Methadone in pregnancy: Treatment retention and neonatal outcomes. Addiction102: 264–270.
38.
CannonMJonesPBMurrayRM (2002) Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: Historical and meta-analytic review. Am J Psychiatry159: 1080–1092.
39.
CantwellRClutton-BrockTCooperG. (2011) Saving mothers’ lives: Reviewing maternal deaths to make motherhood safer: 2006-2008. The Eighth Report of the Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom. BJOG118(Suppl. 1): 1–203.
40.
CastroVMKongSWClementsCC. (2016) Absence of evidence for increase in risk for autism or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder following antidepressant exposure during pregnancy: A replication study. Transl Psychiatry6: e708.
41.
CatonARBellEMDruschelCM. (2009) Antihypertensive medication use during pregnancy and the risk of cardiovascular malformations. Hypertension54: 63–70.
42.
Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (2008) Medication-assisted treatment for opioid addiction during pregnancy. In: SAHMSA/CSAT treatment improvement protocols. Rockville (MD): Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
43.
ChamberlainCO’Mara-EvesAOliverS. (2013) Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Issue 10. Article No.: CD001055.
44.
ChambersCDHernandez-DiazSVan MarterLJ. (2006) Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors and risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. N Engl J Med354: 579–587.
45.
ChomchaiCNaMNWatanarungsanP. (2004) Methamphetamine abuse during pregnancy and its health impact on neonates born at Siriraj Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health35: 228–231.
46.
ChristensenJGronborgTKSorensenMJ. (2013) Prenatal valproate exposure and risk of autism spectrum disorders and childhood autism. JAMA309: 1696–1703.
47.
Chun-Fai-ChanBKorenGFayezI. (2005) Pregnancy outcome of women exposed to bupropion during pregnancy: A prospective comparative study. Am J Obstet Gynecol192: 932–936.
48.
ChungTKLauTKYipAS. (2001) Antepartum depressive symptomatology is associated with adverse obstetric and neonatal outcomes. Psychosom Med63: 830–834.
49.
CleareAParianteCMYoungAH. (2015) Evidence-based guidelines for treating depressive disorders with antidepressants: A revision of the 2008 British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines. J Psychopharmacol29: 459–525.
50.
ClementsCCCastroVMBlumenthalSR. (2015) Prenatal antidepressant exposure is associated with risk for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder but not autism spectrum disorder in a large health system. Mol Psychiatry20: 727–734.
51.
CohenLSAltshulerLLHarlowBL. (2006) Relapse of major depression during pregnancy in women who maintain or discontinue antidepressant treatment. JAMA295: 499–507.
52.
CohenLSNonacsRMBaileyJW. (2004) Relapse of depression during pregnancy following antidepressant discontinuation: A preliminary prospective study. Arch Womens Ment Health7: 217–221.
53.
CohenLSVigueraACMcInerneyKA. (2016) Reproductive safety of second-generation antipsychotics: Current data from the Massachusetts general hospital national pregnancy registry for atypical antipsychotics. Am J Psychiatry173: 263–270.
54.
ColemanTChamberlainCDaveyMA. (2015) Pharmacological interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Issue 12. Article No.: CD010078.
55.
CoughlinCGBlackwellKABartleyC. (2015) Obstetric and neonatal outcomes after antipsychotic medication exposure in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol125: 1224–1235.
56.
CroenLAGretherJKYoshidaCK. (2011) Antidepressant use during pregnancy and childhood autism spectrum disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry68: 1104–1112.
57.
CrowSJAgrasWSCrosbyR. (2008) Eating disorder symptoms in pregnancy: A prospective study. Int J Eat Disord41: 277–279.
58.
DalmanCAllebeckPCullbergJ. (1999) Obstetric complications and the risk of schizophrenia: A longitudinal study of a national birth cohort. Arch Gen Psychiatry56: 234–240.
59.
DarwishMMartinPTCevallosWH. (1999) Rapid disappearance of zaleplon from breast milk after oral administration to lactating women. J Clin Pharmacol39: 670–674.
60.
DavalosDBYadonCATregellasHC (2012) Untreated prenatal maternal depression and the potential risks to offspring: A review. Arch Womens Ment Health15: 1–14.
61.
DavanzoRCopertinoMDeCA. (2011) Antidepressant drugs and breastfeeding: A review of the literature. Breastfeed Med6: 89–98.
62.
DavisRLEastmanDMcPhillipsH. (2011) Risks of congenital malformations and perinatal events among infants exposed to calcium channel and beta-blockers during pregnancy. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf20: 138–145.
63.
DeRMZarrilliSDiSA. (2003) Hyperprolactinemia in men: Clinical and biochemical features and response to treatment. Endocrine20: 75–82.
64.
De AsisSJHelgesonLOstroffR (2013) The use of propofol to prevent fetal deceleration during electroconvulsive therapy treatment. J ECT29: e57–e58.
65.
DebooyVDSeshiaMMTenenbeinM. (1993) Intravenous pentazocine and methylphenidate abuse during pregnancy: Maternal lifestyle and infant outcome. Am J Dis Child147: 1062–1065.
66.
DeVidoJBogunovicOWeissRD (2015) Alcohol use disorders in pregnancy. Harv Rev Psychiatry23: 112–121.
67.
Diav-CitrinOShechtmanSArnonJ. (2016) Methylphenidate in pregnancy: A multicenter, prospective, comparative, observational study. J Clin Psychiatry77: 1176–1181.
68.
Diav-CitrinOShechtmanSOrnoyS. (2005) Safety of haloperidol and penfluridol in pregnancy: A multicenter, prospective, controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry66: 317–322.
69.
Diav-CitrinOShechtmanSTahoverE. (2014) Pregnancy outcome following in utero exposure to lithium: A prospective, comparative, observational study. Am J Psychiatry171: 785–794.
DolkHWangHLoaneM. (2016) Lamotrigine use in pregnancy and risk of orofacial cleft and other congenital anomalies. Neurology86: 1716–1725.
72.
DolovichLRAddisAVaillancourtJM (1998) Benzodiazepine use in pregnancy and major malformations or oral cleft: Meta-analysis of cohort and case-control studies. Brit Med J317: 839–843.
EasterAByeATaborelliE. (2013) Recognising the symptoms: How common are eating disorders in pregnancy?Eur Eat Disord Rev21: 340–344.
75.
EasterASolmiFByeA. (2015) Antenatal and postnatal psychopathology among women with current and past eating disorders: Longitudinal patterns. Eur Eat Disord Rev23: 19–27.
76.
EasterATreasureJMicaliN (2011) Fertility and prenatal attitudes towards pregnancy in women with eating disorders: Results from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. BJOG118: 1491–1498.
77.
ElMHWhiteTVerhulstFC. (2014) Maternal use of antidepressant or anxiolytic medication during pregnancy and childhood neurodevelopmental outcomes: A systematic review. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry23: 973–992.
78.
EnnisZNDamkierP (2015) Pregnancy exposure to olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, aripiprazole and risk of congenital malformations: A systematic review. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol116: 315–320.
79.
EryilmazGSayarGHOztenE. (2015) Follow-up study of children whose mothers were treated with transcranial magnetic stimulation during pregnancy: Preliminary results. Neuromodulation18: 255–260.
80.
FieldTDiegoMHernandez-ReifM (2006) Prenatal depression effects on the fetus and newborn: A review. Infant Behav Dev29: 445–455.
81.
FieldTDiegoMHernandez-ReifM. (2008) Chronic prenatal depression and neonatal outcome. Int J Neurosci118: 95–103.
82.
FigueroaR (2010) Use of antidepressants during pregnancy and risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in the offspring. J Dev Behav Pediatr31: 641–648.
83.
Fontein-KuipersYJNieuwenhuijzeMJAusemsM. (2014) Antenatal interventions to reduce maternal distress: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. BJOG121: 389–397.
84.
ForrayAFosterD (2015) Substance use in the perinatal period. Curr Psychiatry Rep17: 91.
85.
FoxCH (1994) Cocaine use in pregnancy. J Am Board Fam Pract7: 225–228.
86.
FrankDAAugustynMKnightWG. (2001) Growth, development, and behavior in early childhood following prenatal cocaine exposure: A systematic review. JAMA285: 1613–1625.
87.
FrankoDLBlaisMABeckerAE. (2001) Pregnancy complications and neonatal outcomes in women with eating disorders. Am J Psychiatry158: 1461–1466.
88.
FreizingerMFrankoDLDaceyM. (2010) The prevalence of eating disorders in infertile women. Fertil Steril93: 72–78.
89.
GeddesJRGardinerARendellJ. (2016) Comparative evaluation of quetiapine plus lamotrigine combination versus quetiapine monotherapy (and folic acid versus placebo) in bipolar depression (CEQUEL): A 2 × 2 factorial randomised trial. Lancet Psychiatry3: 31–39.
90.
GentileS (2008) Infant safety with antipsychotic therapy in breast-feeding: A systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry69: 666–673.
91.
GentileS (2010) Antipsychotic therapy during early and late pregnancy: A systematic review. Schizophr Bull36: 518–544.
92.
GlasheenCRichardsonGAFabioA (2010) A systematic review of the effects of postnatal maternal anxiety on children. Arch Womens Ment Health13: 61–74.
93.
GloverV (2014) Maternal depression, anxiety and stress during pregnancy and child outcome; what needs to be done. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol28: 25–35.
94.
GoodmanJH (2009) Women’s attitudes, preferences, and perceived barriers to treatment for perinatal depression. Birth36: 60–69.
95.
GoodwinGMHaddadPMFerrierIN. (2016) Evidence-based guidelines for treating bipolar disorder: revised third edition recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol30: 495–553.
96.
GoodwinRDKeyesKSimuroN (2007) Mental disorders and nicotine dependence among pregnant women in the United States. Obstet Gynecol109: 875–883.
GrigoriadisSVonderPortenEHMamisashviliL. (2013) The effect of prenatal antidepressant exposure on neonatal adaptation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry74: e309–e320.
99.
GroteNKBridgeJAGavinAR. (2010) A meta-analysis of depression during pregnancy and the risk of preterm birth, low birth weight, and intrauterine growth restriction. Arch Gen Psychiatry67: 1012–1024.
100.
GrzeskowiakLEMorrisonJLHenriksenTB. (2015) Prenatal antidepressant exposure and child behavioural outcomes at 7 years of age: A study within the Danish National Birth Cohort. BJOG123: 1919–1928.
HabermannFFritzscheJFuhlbruckF. (2013) Atypical antipsychotic drugs and pregnancy outcome: A prospective, cohort study. J Clin Psychopharmacol33: 453–462.
103.
HaddadPMTalbotPSAndersonIM. (2015) Managing inadequate antidepressant response in depressive illness. Br Med Bull115: 183–201.
104.
HaddadPMWieckA (2004) Antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinaemia: Mechanisms, clinical features and management. Drugs64: 2291–2314.
105.
HaervigKBMortensenLHHansenAV. (2014) Use of ADHD medication during pregnancy from 1999 to 2010: A Danish register-based study. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf23: 526–533.
106.
HamedSAMoussaEMTohamyAM. (2015) Seminal fluid analysis and testicular volume in adults with epilepsy receiving valproate. J Clin Neurosci22: 508–512.
107.
HanleyGESmolinaKMintzesB. (2016) Postpartum hemorrhage and use of serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol127: 553–561.
108.
HartzSCHeinonenOPShapiroS. (1975) Antenatal exposure to meprobamate and chlordiazepoxide in relation to malformations, mental development, and childhood mortality. N Engl J Med292: 726–728.
109.
HayDFPawlbySWatersCS. (2008) Antepartum and postpartum exposure to maternal depression: Different effects on different adolescent outcomes. J Child Psychol Psychiatry49: 1079–1088.
110.
HizliSGOztenETufanE. (2014) Transcranial magnetic stimulation during pregnancy. Arch Womens Ment Health17: 311–315.
111.
HouserMVHennessyMDHowardBC (2010) Vagal nerve stimulator use during pregnancy for treatment of refractory seizure disorder. Obstet Gynecol115: 417–419.
112.
HowardLM (2005) Fertility and pregnancy in women with psychotic disorders. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol119: 3–10.
113.
HowardLMBekeleDRoweM. (2013) Smoking cessation in pregnant women with mental disorders: A cohort and nested qualitative study. BJOG120: 362–370.
114.
HowardLMGossCLeeseM. (2003) Medical outcome of pregnancy in women with psychotic disorders and their infants in the first year after birth. Br J Psychiatry182: 63–67.
115.
HuXWangJDongW. (2011) A meta-analysis of polycystic ovary syndrome in women taking valproate for epilepsy. Epilepsy Res97: 73–82.
116.
HusainMMStegmanDTrevinoK (2005) Pregnancy and delivery while receiving vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of major depression: A case report. Ann Gen Psychiatry4: 16.
117.
HuybrechtsKFBatemanBTPalmstenK. (2015) Antidepressant use late in pregnancy and risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. JAMA313: 2142–2151.
118.
HuybrechtsKFHernandez-DiazSAvornJ (2014a) Antidepressant use in pregnancy and the risk of cardiac defects. N Engl J Med371: 1168–1169.
119.
HuybrechtsKFHernandez-DiazSAvornJ (2014b) Antidepressant use in pregnancy and the risk of cardiac defects. N Engl J Med371: 1168–1169.
120.
HuybrechtsKFHernandez-DiazSPatornoE. (2016) Antipsychotic use in pregnancy and the risk for congenital malformations. JAMA Psychiatry73: 938–946.
121.
ItoSBlajchmanAStephensonM. (1993) Prospective follow-up of adverse reactions in breast-fed infants exposed to maternal medication. Am J Obstet Gynecol168: 1393–1399.
122.
JablenskyAVMorganVZubrickSR. (2005) Pregnancy, delivery, and neonatal complications in a population cohort of women with schizophrenia and major affective disorders. Am J Psychiatry162: 79–91.
123.
JentinkJDolkHLoaneMA. (2010a) Intrauterine exposure to carbamazepine and specific congenital malformations: Systematic review and case-control study. Brit Med J341: c6581.
124.
JentinkJLoaneMADolkH. (2010b) Valproic acid monotherapy in pregnancy and major congenital malformations. N Engl J Med362: 2185–2193.
125.
JohnsonKCLaPrairieJLBrennanPA. (2012) Prenatal antipsychotic exposure and neuromotor performance during infancy. Arch Gen Psychiatry69: 787–794.
126.
JonesHEKaltenbachKHeilSH. (2010) Neonatal abstinence syndrome after methadone or buprenorphine exposure. N Engl J Med363: 2320–2331.
127.
JonesIChandraPSDazzanP. (2014) Bipolar disorder, affective psychosis, and schizophrenia in pregnancy and the post-partum period. Lancet384: 1789–1799.
128.
JuricSNewportDJRitchieJC. (2009) Zolpidem (Ambien) in pregnancy: Placental passage and outcome. Arch Womens Ment Health12: 441–446.
129.
KallenBBorgNReisM (2013) The use of central nervous system active drugs during pregnancy. Pharmaceuticals (Basel)6: 1221–1286.
130.
KallenBAOtterbladOP (2007) Maternal use of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors in early pregnancy and infant congenital malformations. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol79: 301–308.
131.
KaplanYCKeskin-ArslanEAcarS. (2016) Prenatal selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor use and the risk of autism spectrum disorder in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Reprod Toxicol66: 31–43.
132.
KellyLEPoonSMadadiP. (2012) Neonatal benzodiazepines exposure during breastfeeding. J Pediatr161: 448–451.
133.
KhoshnoodBLoaneMdeWH. (2015) Long term trends in prevalence of neural tube defects in Europe: population based study. Brit Med J351: h5949.
134.
KimDREppersonNPareE. (2011a) An open label pilot study of transcranial magnetic stimulation for pregnant women with major depressive disorder. J Womens Health (Larchmt)20: 255–261.
135.
KimDRSnellJLEwingGC. (2015) Neuromodulation and antenatal depression: A review. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat11: 975–982.
136.
KimDRSockolLBarberJP. (2011b) A survey of patient acceptability of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) during pregnancy. J Affect Disord129: 385–390.
137.
KimHGMandellMCrandallC. (2006) Antenatal psychiatric illness and adequacy of prenatal care in an ethnically diverse inner-city obstetric population. Arch Womens Ment Health9: 103–107.
138.
KimJJSilverRK (2016) Perinatal suicide associated with depression diagnosis and absence of active treatment in 15-year UK national inquiry. Evid Based Ment Health19: 122.
139.
King-HeleSWebbRTMortensenPB. (2009) Risk of stillbirth and neonatal death linked with maternal mental illness: a national cohort study. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed94: F105–F110.
140.
KjaersgaardMIParnerETVestergaardM. (2013) Prenatal antidepressant exposure and risk of spontaneous abortion - a population-based study. PLoS One8: e72095.
141.
KnappWPSoaresBGFarrelM. (2007) Psychosocial interventions for cocaine and psychostimulant amphetamines related disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Issue 7. Article No.: CD003023.
142.
KnightMTuffnellDKenyonS. (eds) on behalf of MBRRACE-UK (2015) Saving Lives, Improving Mothers’ Care - Surveillance of maternal deaths in the UK 2011–13 and lessons learned to inform maternity care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2009–13. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford.
143.
KraljevicMWarnockFF (2013) Early educational and behavioral RCT interventions to reduce maternal symptoms of psychological trauma following preterm birth: A systematic review. J Perinat Neonatal Nurs27: 311–327.
144.
KuhnLKlineJNgS. (2000) Cocaine use during pregnancy and intrauterine growth retardation: New insights based on maternal hair tests. Am J Epidemiol152: 112–119.
145.
LaegreidLHagbergGLundbergA (1992) Neurodevelopment in late infancy after prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines – a prospective study. Neuropediatrics23: 60–67.
146.
LancasterCAGoldKJFlynnHA. (2010) Risk factors for depressive symptoms during pregnancy: A systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol202: 5–14.
147.
LangleyKHeronJSmithGD. (2012) Maternal and paternal smoking during pregnancy and risk of ADHD symptoms in offspring: Testing for intrauterine effects. Am J Epidemiol176: 261–268.
148.
LarsenERDamkierPPedersenLH. (2015) Use of psychotropic drugs during pregnancy and breast-feeding. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 445: 1–28.
149.
LaugesenKOlsenMSTelen AndersenAB. (2013) In utero exposure to antidepressant drugs and risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A nationwide Danish cohort study. BMJ Open3: e003507.
150.
LawsonAMurphyKESloanE. (2015) The relationship between sleep and postpartum mental disorders: A systematic review. J Affect Disord176: 65–77.
151.
LeiknesKACookeMJJarosch-vonSL. (2015) Electroconvulsive therapy during pregnancy: A systematic review of case studies. Arch Womens Ment Health18: 1–39.
152.
LiDLiuLOdouliR (2009) Presence of depressive symptoms during early pregnancy and the risk of preterm delivery: A prospective cohort study. Hum Reprod24: 146–153.
153.
LinHCChenIJChenYH. (2010) Maternal schizophrenia and pregnancy outcome: Does the use of antipsychotics make a difference?Schizophr Res116: 55–60.
154.
LinSLeonardDCoMA. (2015) Pre-eclampsia has an adverse impact on maternal and fetal health. Transl Res165: 449–463.
155.
Lingford-HughesARWelchSPetersL. (2012) BAP updated guidelines: Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological management of substance abuse, harmful use, addiction and comorbidity: Recommendations from BAP. J Psychopharmacol26: 899–952.
156.
LinnaMSRaevuoriAHaukkaJ. (2014) Pregnancy, obstetric, and perinatal health outcomes in eating disorders. Am J Obstet Gynecol211: 392–398.
157.
LouikCKerrSMitchellAA (2014) First-trimester exposure to bupropion and risk of cardiac malformations. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf23: 1066–1075.
158.
MactierHShiptonDDrydenC. (2014) Reduced fetal growth in methadone-maintained pregnancies is not fully explained by smoking or socio-economic deprivation. Addiction109: 482–488.
159.
MageeLADuleyL (2003) Oral beta-blockers for mild to moderate hypertension during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Issue 3. Article No.: CD002863.
160.
MakarechianNAgroKDevlinJ. (1998) Association between moderate alcohol consumption during pregnancy and spontaneous abortion, stillbirth and premature birth: A meta-analysis. Can J Clin Pharmacol5: 169–176.
161.
MalmHArtamaMGisslerM. (2011) Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and risk for major congenital anomalies. Obstet Gynecol118: 111–120.
162.
ManKKTongHHWongLY. (2015) Exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorder in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev49: 82–89.
163.
McCorryDBromleyR (2015) Does in utero exposure of antiepileptic drugs lead to failure to reach full cognitive potential?Seizure28: 51–56.
164.
McGuinnessMBlissettJJonesC (2011) OCD in the perinatal period: is postpartum OCD (ppOCD) a distinct subtype? A review of the literature. Behav Cogn Psychother39: 285–310.
165.
McKennaKKorenGTetelbaumM. (2005) Pregnancy outcome of women using atypical antipsychotic drugs: A prospective comparative study. J Clin Psychiatry66: 444–449.
166.
McKnightRFAdidaMBudgeK. (2012) Lithium toxicity profile: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet379: 721–728
167.
MeadorKReynoldsMWCreanS. (2008) Pregnancy outcomes in women with epilepsy: A systematic review and meta-analysis of published pregnancy registries and cohorts. Epilepsy Res81: 1–13.
168.
MeidahlPKJimenez-SolemEAndersenJT. (2012) β-Blocker treatment during pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcomes: A nationwide population-based cohort study. BMJ Open2: pii: e001185.
169.
MetzTDStickrathEH (2015) Marijuana use in pregnancy and lactation: A review of the evidence. Am J Obstet Gynecol213: 761–778.
170.
MicaliNdos-Santos-SilvaIDeSB. (2014) Fertility treatment, twin births, and unplanned pregnancies in women with eating disorders: Findings from a population-based birth cohort. BJOG121: 408–416.
171.
MicaliNHagbergKWPetersenI. (2013) The incidence of eating disorders in the UK in 2000-2009: Findings from the General Practice Research Database. BMJ Open3: pii: e002646.
172.
MicaliNSimonoffEStahlD. (2011a) Maternal eating disorders and infant feeding difficulties: Maternal and child mediators in a longitudinal general population study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry52: 800–807.
173.
MicaliNSimonoffETreasureJ (2011b) Pregnancy and post-partum depression and anxiety in a longitudinal general population cohort: The effect of eating disorders and past depression. J Affect Disord131: 150–157.
174.
MicaliNStemannLPStrandberg-LarsenK. (2016a) Size at birth and preterm birth in women with lifetime eating disorders: A prospective population-based study. BJOG123: 1301–1310.
175.
MicaliNStemannLPStrandberg-LarsenK. (2016b) Size at birth and preterm birth in women with lifetime eating disorders: A prospective population-based study. BJOG123: 1301–1310.
176.
MillerLJ (1994) Use of electroconvulsive therapy during pregnancy. Hosp Community Psychiatry45: 444–450.
MorettiME (2009) Psychotropic drugs in lactation – Motherisk Update 2008. Can J Clin Pharmacol16: e49–e57.
179.
MorganJFLaceyJHChungE (2006) Risk of postnatal depression, miscarriage, and preterm birth in bulimia nervosa: Retrospective controlled study. Psychosom Med68: 487–492.
180.
MortensenJTOlsenJLarsenH. (2003) Psychomotor development in children exposed in utero to benzodiazepines, antidepressants, neuroleptics, and anti-epileptics. Eur J Epidemiol18: 769–771.
181.
Moses-KolkoELBogenDPerelJ. (2005) Neonatal signs after late in utero exposure to serotonin reuptake inhibitors: Literature review and implications for clinical applications. JAMA293: 2372–2383.
182.
Munk-OlsenTLaursenTMMendelsonT. (2009) Risks and predictors of readmission for a mental disorder during the postpartum period. Arch Gen Psychiatry66: 189–195.
183.
Munk-OlsenTLaursenTMPedersenCB. (2006) New parents and mental disorders: A population-based register study. JAMA296: 2582–2589.
184.
MurrayLArtecheAFearonP. (2010) The effects of maternal postnatal depression and child sex on academic performance at age 16 years: A developmental approach. J Child Psychol Psychiatry51: 1150–1159.
185.
NanovskayaTNOnckenCFokinaVM. (2016) Bupropion sustained release for pregnant smokers: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol pii: S0002-9378(16)32062-2.
186.
NastIBoltenMMeinlschmidtG. (2013) How to measure prenatal stress? A systematic review of psychometric instruments to assess psychosocial stress during pregnancy. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol27: 313–322.
187.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2004) Eating disorders in over 8s: Management. NICE Guidelines CG9. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg9
188.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2007) Methadone and buprenorphine for the management of opioid dependence. NICE Technology Appraisal Guidance TA114. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA114
189.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2008) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Diagnosis and management. NICE Guidelines CG72. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg72.
190.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2009) Depression: The treatment and management of depression in adults (update). NICE Clinical Guideline 91. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg91
191.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2010a) Pregnancy and complex social factors: A model for service provision for pregnant women with complex social factors. NICE Guidelines CG110. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg110
192.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2010b) Smoking: Stopping in pregnancy and after childbirth. NICE Guidelines PH26. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/PH26
193.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2010c) Weight management before, during and after pregnancy. NICE Guidelines PH27. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/PH27
194.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2011) Alcohol-use disorders: diagnosis, assessment and management of harmful drinking and alcohol dependence. NICE Guidelines CG115.
195.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2012) Epilepsies: Diagnosis and management. NICE Guidelines CG137. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG137
196.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2013) Fertility problems: Assessment and treatment. NICE Guidelines CG156. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG156
197.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2014) Bipolar disorder: Assessment and management. NICE Guidelines CG185. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG185
198.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2015a) Antenatal and postnatal mental health: Clinical management and service guidance. NICE Guidelines CG192. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG192
199.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2015b) Diabetes in pregnancy: Management from preconception to the postnatal period. NICE Guidelines NG3. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/NG3
200.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2015c) Violence and aggression: Short-term management in mental health, health and community settings. NICE Guidelines NG10. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/NG10
201.
NewhamJJThomasSHMacRitchieK. (2008) Birth weight of infants after maternal exposure to typical and atypical antipsychotics: Prospective comparison study. Br J Psychiatry192: 333–337.
202.
NewportDJCalamarasMRDeVaneCL. (2007a) Atypical antipsychotic administration during late pregnancy: Placental passage and obstetrical outcomes. Am J Psychiatry164: 1214–1220.
203.
NewportDJCalamarasMRDeVaneCL. (2007b) Atypical antipsychotic administration during late pregnancy: Placental passage and obstetrical outcomes. Am J Psychiatry164: 1214–1220.
204.
NewportDJPennellPBCalamarasMR. (2008) Lamotrigine in breast milk and nursing infants: Determination of exposure. Pediatrics122: e223–e231.
205.
NewportDJVigueraACBeachAJ. (2005) Lithium placental passage and obstetrical outcome: Implications for clinical management during late pregnancy. Am J Psychiatry162: 2162–2170.
206.
OberlanderTFWarburtonWMisriS. (2006) Neonatal outcomes after prenatal exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants and maternal depression using population-based linked health data. Arch Gen Psychiatry63: 898–906.
207.
O’ConnorTGHeronJGoldingJ. (2003) Maternal antenatal anxiety and behavioural/emotional problems in children: A test of a programming hypothesis. J Child Psychol Psychiatry44: 1025–1036.
208.
O’DonnellKJGloverVBarkerED. (2014) The persisting effect of maternal mood in pregnancy on childhood psychopathology. Dev Psychopathol26: 393–403.
209.
OldeEvan der HartOKleberR. (2006) Posttraumatic stress following childbirth: A review. Clin Psychol Rev26: 1–16.
210.
O’LearyCMNassarNKurinczukJJ. (2009) The effect of maternal alcohol consumption on fetal growth and preterm birth. BJOG116: 390–400.
211.
O’ReardonJPCristanchoMAvon AndreaeCV. (2011) Acute and maintenance electroconvulsive therapy for treatment of severe major depression during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy with infant follow-up to 18 months: Case report and review of the literature. J ECT27: e23–e26.
212.
OrsoliniLBellantuonoC (2015) Serotonin reuptake inhibitors and breastfeeding: A systematic review. Hum Psychopharmacol30: 4–20.
213.
PaluzziABainPGLiuX. (2006) Pregnancy in dystonic women with in situ deep brain stimulators. Mov Disord21: 695–698.
214.
ParikhTGoyalDScarffJR. (2014) Antipsychotic drugs and safety concerns for breast-feeding infants. South Med J107: 686–688.
215.
PawlbySHayDSharpD. (2011) Antenatal depression and offspring psychopathology: The influence of childhood maltreatment. Br J Psychiatry199: 106–112.
PedersenLHHenriksenTBOlsenJ (2010) Fetal exposure to antidepressants and normal milestone development at 6 and 19 months of age. Pediatrics125: e600–e608
218.
PengMGaoKDingY. (2013) Effects of prenatal exposure to atypical antipsychotics on postnatal development and growth of infants: A case-controlled, prospective study. Psychopharmacology (Berl)228: 577–584.
219.
PennellPBKleinAMBrowningN. (2012) Differential effects of antiepileptic drugs on neonatal outcomes. Epilepsy Behav24: 449–456.
220.
PetersenIMcCreaRLSammonCJ. (2016) Risks and benefits of psychotropic medication in pregnancy: Cohort studies based on UK electronic primary care health records. Health Technol Assess20: 1–176.
221.
PlantDTBarkerEDWatersCS. (2013) Intergenerational transmission of maltreatment and psychopathology: The role of antenatal depression. Psychol Med43: 519–528.
222.
PlantDTParianteCMSharpD. (2015a) Maternal depression during pregnancy and offspring depression in adulthood: Role of child maltreatment. Br J Psychiatry207: 213–220
223.
PlantDTParianteCMSharpD. (2015b) Maternal depression during pregnancy and offspring depression in adulthood: Role of child maltreatment. Br J Psychiatry207: 213–220.
224.
PottegardAHallasJAndersenJT. (2014) First-trimester exposure to methylphenidate: A population-based cohort study. J Clin Psychiatry75: e88–e93
225.
RamakrishnanALeeLJMitchellLE. (2015) Maternal hypertension during pregnancy and the risk of congenital heart defects in offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr Cardiol36: 1442–1451.
226.
RaoofNTPearsonRMTurnerP (1989) Lithium inhibits human sperm motility in vitro. Br J Clin Pharmacol28: 715–717.
227.
RasmussenKMCatalanoPMYaktineAL (2009) New guidelines for weight gain during pregnancy: What obstetrician/gynecologists should know. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol21: 521–526.
228.
ReedPSerminNApplebyL. (1999) A comparison of clinical response to electroconvulsive therapy in puerperal and non-puerperal psychoses. J Affect Disord54: 255–260.
229.
ReimersA (2014) New antiepileptic drugs and women. Seizure23: 585–591.
230.
ReisMKallenB (2008) Maternal use of antipsychotics in early pregnancy and delivery outcome. J Clin Psychopharmacol28: 279–288.
231.
ReisMKallenB (2010) Delivery outcome after maternal use of antidepressant drugs in pregnancy: An update using Swedish data. Psychol Med40: 1723–1733
232.
Reynolds-MayMFKennaHAMarshW. (2014) Evaluation of reproductive function in women treated for bipolar disorder compared to healthy controls. Bipolar Disord16: 37–47.
233.
RichardsonJLStephensSYatesLM. (2016) Pregnancy outcomes after maternal varenicline use; analysis of surveillance data collected by the European Network of Teratology Information Services. Reprod Toxicol67: 26–34.
234.
RobertsonEGraceSWallingtonT. (2004) Antenatal risk factors for postpartum depression: A synthesis of recent literature. Gen Hosp Psychiatry26: 289–295.
235.
RossLEGrigoriadisSMamisashviliL. (2013) Selected pregnancy and delivery outcomes after exposure to antidepressant medication: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry70: 436–443.
236.
Royal College of Physicians (2010) Passive smoking and children. A report by the Tobacco Advisory Group of the Royal College of Physicians. London: Royal College of Physicians.
237.
Royal College of Psychiatrists (2012) The ECT Handbook. 3rd edition. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists.
238.
RyanLEhrlichSFinneganL (1987) Cocaine abuse in pregnancy: Effects on the fetus and newborn. Neurotoxicol Teratol9: 295–299.
239.
SadowskiATodorowMYazdaniBP. (2013) Pregnancy outcomes following maternal exposure to second-generation antipsychotics given with other psychotropic drugs: A cohort study. BMJ Open3: pii: e003062.
240.
SalisburyALO’GradyKEBattleCL. (2016) The roles of maternal depression, serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment, and concomitant benzodiazepine use on infant neurobehavioral functioning over the first postnatal month. Am J Psychiatry173: 147–157.
241.
SandmanCADavisEPBussC. (2011) Prenatal programming of human neurological function. Int J Pept2011: 837596.
242.
SchouM (1976) What happened later to the lithium babies? A follow-up study of children born without malformations. Acta Psychiatr Scand54: 193–197.
243.
Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (2012) Management of perinatal mood disorders. SIGN National Clinical Guidelines 127. Available at: http://www.sign.ac.uk/guidelines/fulltext/127/
244.
ShahNHowardL (2006) Screening for smoking and substance misuse in pregnant women with mental illness. Psychiat Bull30: 294–297.
245.
ShenZQGaoSYLiSX. (2016) Sertraline use in the first trimester and risk of congenital anomalies: A systemic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Br J Clin Pharmacol. DOI: 10.1111/bcp.13161.
246.
SkagerstromJChangGNilsenP (2011) Predictors of drinking during pregnancy: A systematic review. J Womens Health (Larchmt)20: 901–913.
247.
SloneDSiskindVHeinonenOP. (1977) Antenatal exposure to the phenothiazines in relation to congenital malformations, perinatal mortality rate, birth weight, and intelligence quotient score. Am J Obstet Gynecol128: 486–488.
248.
SminkFRvanHDHoekHW (2012) Epidemiology of eating disorders: Incidence, prevalence and mortality rates. Curr Psychiatry Rep14: 406–414.
249.
SmithLYonekuraMLWallaceT. (2003) Effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure on fetal growth and drug withdrawal symptoms in infants born at term. J Dev Behav Pediatr24: 17–23.
250.
SolmiFSallisHStahlD. (2014) Low birth weight in the offspring of women with anorexia nervosa. Epidemiol Rev36: 49–56
251.
SoussanCGouraudAPortolanG. (2014) Drug-induced adverse reactions via breastfeeding: A descriptive study in the French Pharmacovigilance Database. Eur J Clin Pharmacol70: 1361–1366.
SuriRAltshulerLHendrickV. (2004) The impact of depression and fluoxetine treatment on obstetrical outcome. Arch Womens Ment Health7: 193–200.
256.
SuttonCMurrayLGloverV (2012) Support from the start: Effective programmes from birth to two years. Journal of Children’s Services7: 18–29.
257.
SvalheimSSvebergLMocholM. (2015) Interactions between antiepileptic drugs and hormones. Seizure28: 12–17.
258.
TaborelliEEasterAKeefeR. (2015) Transition to motherhood in women with eating disorders: A qualitative study. Psychol Psychother89: 308–323.
259.
TalgeNMNealCGloverV (2007) Antenatal maternal stress and long-term effects on child neurodevelopment: How and why?J Child Psychol Psychiatry48: 245–261.
260.
TerplanMRamanadhanSLockeA. (2015) Psychosocial interventions for pregnant women in outpatient illicit drug treatment programs compared to other interventions. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Issue 4. Article No.: CD006037.
261.
TerranaNKorenGPivovarovJ. (2015) Pregnancy outcomes following in utero exposure to second-generation antipsychotics: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychopharmacol35: 559–565.
262.
ThyagarajanVRobinCCWurstKE. (2012) Bupropion therapy in pregnancy and the occurrence of cardiovascular malformations in infants. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf21: 1240–1242.
263.
TierneySFoxJRButterfieldC. (2011) Treading the tightrope between motherhood and an eating disorder: A qualitative study. Int J Nurs Stud48: 1223–1233.
264.
TohSLiQCheethamTC. (2013) Prevalence and trends in the use of antipsychotic medications during pregnancy in the U.S., 2001-2007: A population-based study of 585,615 deliveries. Arch Womens Ment Health16: 149–157.
265.
TomsonTBattinoD (2012) Teratogenic effects of antiepileptic drugs. Lancet Neurol11: 803–813.
266.
TomsonTLandmarkCJBattinoD (2013) Antiepileptic drug treatment in pregnancy: Changes in drug disposition and their clinical implications. Epilepsia54: 405–414.
267.
UguzF (2016) Second-generation antipsychotics during the lactation period: A comparative systematic review on infant safety. J Clin Psychopharmacol36: 244–252.
VajdaFJO’BrienTJGrahamJ. (2016) Is carbamazepine a human teratogen?J Clin Neurosci23: 34–37.
270.
VeibyGDaltveitAKEngelsenBA. (2014) Fetal growth restriction and birth defects with newer and older antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy. J Neurol261: 579–588.
271.
VialeLAlloteyJCheong-SeeF. (2015) Epilepsy in pregnancy and reproductive outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet386: 1845–1852.
272.
ViggedalGHagbergBSLaegreidL. (1993) Mental development in late infancy after prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines – a prospective study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry34: 295–305.
273.
VigodSNGomesTWiltonAS. (2015) Antipsychotic drug use in pregnancy: High dimensional, propensity matched, population based cohort study. Brit Med J350: h2298.
274.
VigodSNKurdyakPADennisCL. (2014) Maternal and newborn outcomes among women with schizophrenia: A retrospective population-based cohort study. BJOG121: 566–574.
275.
VigueraACNewportDJRitchieJ. (2007a) Lithium in breast milk and nursing infants: Clinical implications. Am J Psychiatry164: 342–345.
276.
VigueraACWhitfieldTBaldessariniRJ. (2007b) Risk of recurrence in women with bipolar disorder during pregnancy: Prospective study of mood stabilizer discontinuation. Am J Psychiatry164: 1817–1824.
277.
WangLHLinHCLinCC. (2010) Increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in women receiving zolpidem during pregnancy. Clin Pharmacol Ther88: 369–374.
278.
WarburtonWHertzmanCOberlanderTF (2010) A register study of the impact of stopping third trimester selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor exposure on neonatal health. Acta Psychiatr Scand121: 471–479.
279.
WebbRTWicksSDalmanC. (2010) Influence of environmental factors in higher risk of sudden infant death syndrome linked with parental mental illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry67: 69–77.
280.
WeinsteinMR (1980) Lithium treatment of women during pregnancy and the post-delivery period. In:
JohnsonFN (ed) Handbook of Lithium Therapy. Lancaster: MTP Press, pp. 421–429.
281.
WesselooRKampermanAMMunk-OlsenT. (2016) Risk of postpartum relapse in bipolar disorder and postpartum psychosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry173: 117–127.
282.
WhitworthMDowswellT (2009) Routine pre-pregnancy health promotion for improving pregnancy outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Issue 10. Article No.: CD007536.
283.
WiknerBNKallenB (2011) Are hypnotic benzodiazepine receptor agonists teratogenic in humans?J Clin Psychopharmacol31: 356–359.
284.
WiknerBNStillerCOBergmanU. (2007) Use of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine receptor agonists during pregnancy: Neonatal outcome and congenital malformations. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf16: 1203–1210.
285.
WilensTE (2003) Does the medicating ADHD increase or decrease the risk for later substance abuse?Rev Bras Psiquiatr25: 127–128.
286.
WinterfeldUMerlobPBaudD. (2016) Pregnancy outcome following maternal exposure to pregabalinmaycall for concern. Neurology86: 2251–2257.
287.
WisnerKLSitDKHanusaBH. (2009) Major depression and antidepressant treatment: Impact on pregnancy and neonatal outcomes. Am J Psychiatry166: 557–566.
288.
WlodarczykBJPalaciosAMGeorgeTM. (2012) Antiepileptic drugs and pregnancy outcomes. Am J Med Genet A158A: 2071–2090.
289.
World Health Organisation, UNICEF (2003) Global strategy for infant and young child feeding. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
290.
World Health Organisation (2014) Guidelines for the identification and management of substance use and substance use disorders in pregnancy. Geneva: World Health Organization.
291.
WurstKEZedlerBKJoyceAR. (2016) A Swedish population-based study of adverse birth outcomes among pregnant women treated with buprenorphine or methadone: Preliminary findings. Subst Abuse10: 89–97.
292.
YakoobMYBatemanBTHoE. (2013) The risk of congenital malformations associated with exposure to beta-blockers early in pregnancy: A meta-analysis. Hypertension62: 375–381.
293.
YonkersKAGotmanNSmithMV. (2011) Does antidepressant use attenuate the risk of a major depressive episode in pregnancy?Epidemiology22: 848–854.
294.
ZedlerBKMannALKimMM. (2016) Buprenorphine compared with methadone to treat pregnant women with opioid use disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of safety in the mother, fetus and child. Addiction111: 2115–2128.
295.
ZhuSHValboA (2002) Depression and smoking during pregnancy. Addict Behav27: 649–658.
296.
ZuckermanBAmaroHBauchnerH. (1989) Depressive symptoms during pregnancy: Relationship to poor health behaviors. Am J Obstet Gynecol160: 1107–1111.
