Sexual dysfunction is a common but significantly underestimated side effect of antipsychotic medication. It is frequently related to the hyperprolactinaemia that can be induced by dopamine-blocking properties of these agents, but may also be related to the anti-serotonergic properties or anticholinergic and antiadrenergic properties of antipsychotics. Knowledge of the receptor pharmacology of an individual antipsychotic will help to determine whether it is more or less likely to cause sexual side effects.
Aizenberg D., Zemishlany Z., Dorfman-Etrog P., Weizman A. (1995) Sexual dysfunction in male schizophrenic patients . 56: 137-141
2.
Arvanitis LA, Miller BG (1997) Multiple fixed doses of `Seroquel` (quetiapine) in patients with acute exacerbation of schizophrenia: a comparison with haloperidol and placebo. The Seroquel Trial 13 Study Group. Biol Psychiatry42: 233-246
3.
Berner MM, Hagen M., Kriston L. (2007) Management of sexual dysfunction due to antipsychotic drug therapy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev24;(1)
4.
Beumont PJ, Gelder MG, Friesen GH et al (1974) The effects of phenothiazines on endocrine function: I Patients with inappropriate lactaction and amenorrhoea. 124: 413-419
5.
Blair JH, Simpson GM (1966) Effect of antipsychotic drugs on reproductive functions. 27: 645-647
6.
Bobes J., Garc A., Portilla MP et al (2003) Frequency of sexual dysfunction and other reproductive side-effects in patients with schizophrenia treated with risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine, or haloperidol: the results of the EIRE study. 29: 125-147
7.
Bongale RN, Tekell JL, Haraguchi GE, Navarro EM (2001) Continuation of clozapine after priapism. Am J Psychiatry158: 2087.
8.
Breier AF, Malhotra AK, Su TP, Pinals DA, Elman I., Adler CM et al (1999) Clozapine and risperidone in chronic schizophrenia: effects on symptoms, parkinsonian side effects and neuroendocrine response . Am J Psychiatry156: 294-298
9.
Buvat J. (2003) Hyperprolactinemia and sexual function in men: a short review. 15: 373-377
10.
Byerly MJ, Nakonezny PA, Bettcher BM, Carmody T., Fisher R., Rush AJ ( 2006) Sexual dysfunction associated with second-generation antipsychotics in outpatients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder: an empirical evaluation of olanzapine, risperidone, and quetiapine. Schizophr Res86: 244-250
11.
Claus A., Bollen J., De Cuyper H., Eneman M., Malfroid M., Peuskens J. et al (1992) Risperidone versus haloperidol in the treatment of chronic schizophrenic inpatients: a multicentre double-blind comparative study. Acta Psychiatr Scand85: 295-305
12.
Compton MT, Saldivia A., Berry SA (2000) Recurrent priapism during treat ment with clozapine and olanzapine. Am J Psychiatry157: 659.
13.
Costa AM, de Lima MS, Faria M., Filho SR, de Oliveira IR, de Jesus Mari J. (2007) A naturalistic, 9-month follow-up, comparing olanzapine and conventional antipsychotics on sexual function and hormonal profile for males with schizophrenia. 21: 165-170
14.
Curtis VA, Wright P., Reveley A., Kerwin R., Lucey JV (1995) Effect of clozapine on d-fenfluramine-evoked neuroendocrine responses in schizophrenia and its relationship to clinical improvement. Br J Psychiatry166: 642-646
15.
David SR, Taylor CC, Kinon BJ, Breier A. (2000) The effects of olanzapine, risperidone and haloperidol on plasma prolactin levels in patients with schizophrenia. Clin Ther22: 1085-1096
16.
De Rosa M., Zarrilli S., Di Sarno A. et al (2003) Hyperprolactinemia in men: clinical and biochemical features and response to treatment. Endocrine20: 75-82
17.
Delavierre D., Girard P., Peneau M., Ibrahim H. (1999) Should plasma prolactin assay be routinely performed in the assessment of erectile dysfunction? Report of a ries of 445 patients . Review of the literature. 9: 1097-1101
18.
Dossenbach M., Dyachkova Y., Pirildar S., Anders M., Khalil A., Araszkiewicz A., Shakhnovich T., Akram A., Pecenak J., McBride M., Treuer T. (2006) Effects of atypical and typical antipsychotic treatments on sexual function in patients with schizophrenia: 12-month results from the Intercontinental Schizophrenia Outpatient Health Outcomes (IC-SOHO) study. 21: 251-258
19.
Dossenbach M., Hodge A., Anders M. et al (2005) Prevalence of sexual dysfunction in patients with schizophrenia: international variation and underestimation. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol8: 195-201
20.
Emsley RA (1999) Risperidone in the treatment of first-episode psychotic patients: a double-blind multicenter study. Risperidone Working Group. Schizophrenia Bull25: 721-729
21.
Finn SE, Bailey JM, Schultz RT, Faber R. (1990) Subjective utility ratings of neuroleptics in treating schizophrenia. 20: 843-848
22.
Freeman ME, Kanyicska B., Lerant A., Nagy G. ( 2000) Prolactin: structure, function, and regulation of secretion Physiol Rev80: 1523- 1631
23.
Ghadirian A., Chouinard G., Annable L. (1982) Sexual Dysfunction and plasma prolactin levels in neuroleptic-treated schizophrenic outpatients. 170: 463-467
24.
Gitlin MJ (1994) Psychotropic medications and their effects on sexual function: diagnosis, biology and treatment approaches. 55: 406-413
25.
Goff D.C., Sullivan L.M., McEvoy J.P.Meyer, J.M., Nasrallah, H.A., Daumit, G.L., Lamberti, S., D'Agostino, R.B., Stroup, T.S., Davis, S., Lieberman, J.A. (2005) A comparison of ten-year cardiac risk estimates in schizophrenia patients from the CATIE study and matched controls. Schizophr Res. 20051; 80(1): 45-53
26.
Howes OD, Wheeler MJ, Pilowsky LS, Landau S., Murray RM, Smith S. (2007) Sexual function and gonadal hormones in patients taking antipsychotic treatment for schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder . 68: 361-367
27.
Kane JM, Carson WH, Saha AR, McQuade RD, Ingenito GG, Zimbroff DL et al (2002) Efficacy and safety of aripiprazole and haloperidol versus placebo in patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder . J Clin Psychiatry63: 763-771
28.
Kim KS, Pae C., Chae JH, Bahk WM, Jun TY, Kim DJ et al (2002) Effects of olanzapine on prolactin levels of female patients with schizophrenia treated with risperidone. J Clin Psychiatry63: 408- 413
29.
Kinon BJ, Ahl J., Liu-Seifert H., Maguire GA (2006) Improvement in hyperprolactinemia and reproductive comorbidities in patients with schizophrenia switched from conventional antipsychotics or risperidone to olanzapine. Psychoneuroendocrinol31: 577-588
30.
Knegtering H., van der Mooen AE, Castelein S., Kluiter H., van den Bosch RJ (2003) What are the effects of antipsychotics on sexual dysfunctions and endocrine functioning?Psychoneuroendocrinol28(Suppl 2): 109-123
31.
Knegtering H., Boks M., Blijd C., Castelein S., van den Bosch RJ, Wiersma D. (2006) A randomized open-label comparison of the impact of olanzapine versus risperidone on sexual functioning. 32: 315-326
32.
Knegtering R., Castelein S., Bous H. et al (2004) A randomized open-label study of the impact of quetiapine versus risperidone on sexual functioning. 24: 56-61
33.
Kockott G., Pfeiffer W. (1996) Sexual Disorders in nonacute psychiatric outpatients . 37: 56-61
34.
Kotin J., Wilbert DE, Verburg D. et al (1976) Am J Psychiatry133: 82- 85
35.
Macdonald S., Halliday J., MacEwan T., Sharkey V., Farrington S., Wall S. et al (2003) Nithsdale Schizophrenia Surveys 24: sexual dysfunction. Case-control study. Br J Psychiatry182: 50-56
36.
Malik P. (2007) Sexual dysfunction in schizophrenia. Curr Opin Psychiatry20: 138-142
37.
Marder SR, McQuade RD, Stock E., Kaplita S., Marcus R., Safferman AZ et al (2003) Schizophr Res61: 123-136
38.
Meltzer HY, Fang VS ( 1976) The effect of neuroleptics on serum prolactin in schizophrenic patients. 33: 279-286
39.
Miceli JJ, Wilner KD, Hansen RA, Johnson AC, Apseloff G., Gerber N. (2000) Single- and multiple- dose pharmacokinetics of ziprasidone under non-fasting conditions in healthy male volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol49 (Suppl 1): 5S-13S
40.
Peterson LR (1998) Estrogen replacement therapy and cronary artery disease. 13: 223-231
41.
Peuskens J., Link CG ( 1997) A comparison of quetiapine and chlorpromazine in the treatment of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 96: 265-273
42.
Raja M., Azzoni A. (2003) Sexual behaviour and sexual problems among patients with severe chronic psychoses. Eur Psychiatry18: 70-76
43.
Sechter D., Peuskens J., Fleurot O., Rein W., Lecrubier Y. Amisulpride Study Group (2002) Amisulpride vs. risperidone in chronic schizophrenia: results of a 6-month double-blind study. Neuropsychopharmacology28: 611.
44.
Smith S., Henderson M. (2000) What you don't know won't hurt you: information given to patients about the side-effects of antipsychotic drugs. 24: 172-174
45.
Smith S., O'Keane V., Murray R. (2002a) Sexual dysfunction in patients taking conventional antipsychotic medication. 4: 49-55
46.
Smith S., Wheeler MJMurray R. et al (2002b) The effects of antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinaemia on the hypothalamic- pituitary-gonadal axis. 22: 109-114
47.
Spollen JJ, Wooten RGCargile C., Bartztokis G. (2004) Prolactin levels and erectile function in patients treated with risperidone. 25: 393-394
48.
Teusch L., Scherbaum N., Böhme H. et al (1995) Different patterns of sexual dysfunctions associated with psychiatric disorders and psychopharmacological treatment . 28: 84-92
49.
Thorner MO (2002) Hyperprolactinaemia In Comprehensive Clinical Endocrinology eds: Besser, G. and Thorner, M., ch. 6, 76-84, Mosby , London, UK. Elsevier Science Ltd
50.
Von Kraft-Ebing R. (1886) Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke
