Selective Processing of Smoking-Related Cues in Current Smokers,Ex-Smokers and Never-Smokers on the Modified Stroop Task

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate selective processing biases towards smoking-related stimuli in relation to acute abstinence and smoking history. Differences in the processing of smoking-related and control cues in current smokers, ex-smokers and never-smokers on the modified Stroop task were investigated, with smokers randomized to either abstain or smoke normally for a period of 24 h. The results indicated no significant effect of deprivation (abstinent versus non-abstinent smokers), or of smoking history (ex- versus never-smokers) on colour-naming times for smoking-related versus control words. However, there was a significant effect of smoking status (current versus non-smokers) on colour-naming times for smoking words compared to control words (i.e. slower colour-naming of smoking-related words in smokers). This effect approached significance when stimuli were presented in a masked exposure condition. Among smokers, colour-naming interference was associated with the personality trait of Sensitivity to Reward. These results indicate a processing bias for smoking-related cues in current smokers. However, this bias does not appear to be a permanent feature of nicotine addiction, given the lack of difference between ex-smokers and never-smokers.

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Balfour D J K, Wright A E, Benwell M E M, Birrell C E (2000) The putative role of extra-synaptic mesolimbic dopamine in the neurobiology of nicotine dependence . Behav Brain Res 113: 73-83

Bradley B P, Mogg K Millar N, White J (1995) Selective processing of negative information: effects of clinical anxiety, concurrent depression and awareness . J Abnorm Psychol 104: 532-536

Caroll J B, Davies P, Richman B (1971) The American heritage word frequency book. American Heritage, New York

Davis L J, Hurt R D, Offord K P, Lauger G G, Morse R M, Bruce B K (1994) Self-Administered Nicotine-Dependence Scale (SANDS): item selection, reliability estimation, and initial validation . J Clin Psychol 50: 918-930

Eysenck H J, Eysenck S B G (1991) The Eysenck personality questionnaire - revised. Hodder & Stoughton, London

Franken I H A, Kroon, L Y, Wiers R W, Jansen A (2000) Selective cognitive processing of drug cues in heroin dependence . J Psychopharmacol 14: 395-400

Gray J A (1972) The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion: a modification of Eysenck's theory. In Nebylitsyn V D, Gray J A (eds), Biological bases of individual behavior, pp. 182-205. Academic Press, New York

Gray J A (1981) A critique of Eysenck's theory of personality. In Eysenck H J (ed.), A model for personality, pp. 246-277. Springer, Berlin

Gross T M, Jarvik M E, Rosenblatt M R (1993) Nicotine abstinence produces content-specific Stroop interference . Psychopharmacology 110: 333-336

10.

Heatherton T F, Kozlowski L T, Frecker R C, Fagerstrom K O (1991) The Fagerstrom test for nicotine dependence: a revision of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire . Br J Addict 86: 1119-1127

11.

Johnsen B H, Thayer J F, Laberg J C, Asbjornsen A E (1997) Attentional bias in active smokers, abstinent smokers and nonsmokers . Addict Behav 22: 813-817

12.

Mogg K, Bradley B P (2002) Selective processing of smoking-related cues in smokers: manipulation of deprivation level and comparison of three measures of cognitive bias . J Psycho-pharmacol 16: 385-392

13.

Mogg K, Kentish J, Bradley B P (1993) Effects of anxiety and awareness on colour identification latencies for emotional words . Behav Res Ther 31: 559-567

14.

Munafò M, Johnstone E, Murphy M, Walton R (2001) New directions in the genetic mechanisms underlying nicotine addiction . Addict Biol 6: 109-117

15.

Niaura R, Abrams D B, Shadel W G, Rohsenow D J, Monti P M, Sirota A D (1999) Cue exposure treatment for smoking relapse prevention: a controlled clinical trial . Addiction 94: 685-695

16.

Ratcliff R (1993) Methods for dealing with reaction time outliers . Psychol Bull 114: 510-532

17.

Robinson T E, Berridge K C (1993) The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction . Brain Res Rev 18: 247-291

18.

Robinson T E, Berridge K C (2000) The psychology and neurobiology of addiction: an incentive-sensitization view . Addiction 95 (Suppl2): S91-S117

19.

Sayette M A, Hufford M R (1997) Effects of smoking urge on generation of smoking-related information . J Appl Soc Psychol 27: 1395-1405

20.

Sharma D, Albery I P, Cook C (2001) Selective attentional bias to alcohol related stimuli in problem drinkers and non-problem drinkers . Addiction 96: 285-295

21.

Spielberger C D, Gorusch R L, Lushene R E (1970) State-trait anxiety inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA

22.

Spielberger C D (1986) Psychological determinants of smoking behavior. In Tollison R D (ed.), Smoking and society: toward a more balanced assessment, pp. 89-134. DC Heath, Lexington, MA

23.

Waters A J, Feyerabend C (2000) Determinants and effects of attentional bias in smokers . Psychol Addict Behav 14: 111-120

24.

Williams J G W, Mathews A, MacLeod C (1996) The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology . Psychol Bull 120: 3-24

25.

Zack M, Belsito L, Scher R, Eissenberg T, Corrigall W A (2001) Effects of abstinence and smoking on information processing in adolescent smokers . Psychopharmacology 153: 249-257